Assiniboine language

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Assiniboine
Assiniboin, Hohe, Nakota, Nakoda, Nakon, Nakona, or Stoney
Nakʰóda
Native to Canada, United States
Region Saskatchewan, Canada Montana, United States
Ethnicity 3,500 Assiniboine (2007)[1]
Native speakers
150, 4.3% of ethnic population (2007)[1]
Siouan
Language codes
ISO 639-3 asb
Glottolog assi1247[2]
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters.

The Assiniboine language (also known as Assiniboin, Hohe, or Nakota, Nakoda, Nakon or Nakona,[3] or Stoney) is a Nakotan Siouan language of the Northern Plains. The name Assiniboine comes from the term Asiniibwaan, from Ojibwe, meaning "Stone Siouans". The reason they were called this was that Assiniboine people used heated stone to boil their food. In Canada, Assiniboine people are known as Stoney Indians, while they called themselves Nakota or Nakoda, meaning "allies".

Classification

The Dakotan group of the Siouan family has five main divisions: Dakota (Santee-Sisseton), Dakota (Yankton-Yanktonai), Lakota (Teton), Nakoda (Assiniboine) and Nakoda (Stoney).[4][5] Along with the closely related Stoney, Assiniboine is an n variety of the Dakotan languages, meaning its autonym is pronounced with an initial n (thus: Nakʰóta as opposed to Dakʰóta or Lakʰóta, and Nakʰóda or Nakʰóna as opposed to Dakʰód or Lakʰól). The Assiniboine language is also closely related to the Sioux language and to the Stoney language (likewise called Nakoda or Nakota), although they are hardly mutually intelligible.

File:The Family Tree.png
The Siouan Family of Languages[6]

Official status

The Assiniboine language is not a government-recognized official language of any state or region where Assiniboine people live. There are two Reservations located in Montana, but the official language of the state is English.[7] An estimate of native speakers ranges from less than 50,[6] to about 100,[8] to about 150 Assiniboine people, most of them elderly.[9]

Related languages

Sioux, Assiniboine, and Stoney are closely related languages of the Dakota family. Many linguists consider Assiniboine and Stoney to be dialects. However, they are mutually unintelligible. Parks and DeMallie report that they are not variant forms of a single dialect, but that Assiniboine is closer to the Sioux dialects than it is to Stoney. The exact number of interrelationships among the subdialects and dialects comprising this continuum is unknown.[4]

DIALECT GROUP SELF-DESIGNATION POLITICAL DESIGNATION
Santee-Sisseton Dakhóta Sioux
Yankton-Yanktonai Dakȟóta Sioux
Teton Lakȟóta Sioux
Assiniboine Nakhóta Assiniboine
Stoney Nakhóda Stoney

Geographic distribution

The languages of the Dakotan group are spoken in the following regions:

RESERVATION OR RESERVE DIALECT
Alberta
Alexis Stoney
Big Horn Stoney
Eden Valley Stoney
Paul Stoney
Stoney (Morley) Stoney
Saskatchewan
Carry the Kettle Assiniboine
Moose Woods (White Cap) Sioux (Sisseton, Yanktonai)
Mosquito-Grizzly Bear's Head Assiniboine
Sioux Wahpeton (Round Plain) Sioux (Sisseton, Yanktonai)
Standing Buffalo Sioux (Sisseton, Yanktonai)
Whitebear Assiniboine
Wood Mountain Sioux (Teton)
Manitoba
Birdtail Sioux (Santee)
Oak Lake Sioux (Santee)
Sioux Valley Sioux (Santee)
Sioux Village-Long Plain Sioux (Santee)
North Dakota
Devil's Lake Sioux (Sisseton, Yanktonai)
Standing Rock Sioux (Yanktonai)
South Dakota
Cheyenne River Sioux (Teton)
Crow Creek Sioux (Yanktonai)
Flandreau Sioux (Santee)
Lower Brule Sioux (Teton)
Pine Ridge Sioux (Teton)
Rosebud Sioux (Teton)
Sisseton Sioux (Teton)
Standing Rock Sioux (Teton)
Yankton Sioux (Yankton)
Nebraska
Santee Sioux (Santee)
Minnesota
Lower Sioux Sioux (Santee)
Prairie Island Sioux (Santee)
Prior Lake Sioux (Santee)
Upper Sioux Sioux (Santee)
Montana
Fort Belknap Assiniboine
Fort Peck Assiniboine, Sioux (Yanktonai, Sisseton)

D-N-L Classification System

The Assiniboine language(Nakota), the Dakota language and the Lakota language are usually classified into a group with D-N-L subgroup classification. As suggested by the name of the system, the variation in pronunciations of certain words follows the D-N-L rule. A typical example is given below:[4]

English meaning greasy
Santee-Sisseton sda
Yankton-Yanktonai sda
Teton sla
Assiniboine sna
Stoney sna

Santee-Sisseton and Yankton-Yanktonai are languages that belong to the Dakotan group and Teton is a language in the Lakotan group. The table above illustrates a typical variation amongst these three languages. Just as the name of these three tribes suggest, the Dakota language, the Lakota language and the Nakota (Assiniboine) language have respective inclinations towards /d/, /l/, and /n/ in some substitutable consonants.

Arguments against the Classification System

Some scholars argue that the D-N-L classification system may not be totally accurate due to the non-rigidness of the substitution form.[4] Siouan Indians live on an expansive continuum such that the distinction between different languages does not manifest in a rigid, clear-cutting criterion. Historically, linguists have debated on Yankton-Yanktonai languages and their proper positions into the D-N-L classification system, but the coexistence of /d/ and /n/ phonemes made such classification doubtful. This example of lexical difference between the languages of the Siouan group illustrates another possible distinction besides the D-N-L variations.[4]

English meaning horse
Santee-Sisseton súkataka
Yankton-Yanktonai sukawaka
Teton sukawaká
Assiniboine súkataka
Stoney suwatága

Phonology

The phonemic inventory has 27 consonants, which includes aspirated, plain, and ejective stops. In addition to this, it has five oral vowels and three nasal vowels. It is a structure-preserving language. Assiniboine has no definite or indefinite articles, no nominal case system, and no verbal tense marking. Clauses unmarked are "realized," while clauses marked as "potential" by means of verbal enclitic, which is successful in producing a future/non-future distinction. The verbal system is split into active and stative (split-intransitive). The active object pronominal affixes coincide with the stative verbs of the subject pronominal affixes.[8]

Labial Alveolar Palatal or
postalveolar
Velar Glottal
Plosive Plain p t k ʔ
Ejective tʃʼ
Aspirated tʃʰ
Fricative Voiceless s ʃ x
Ejective ʃʼ
Voiced z ʒ ɣ
Nasal m n
Approximant w j h[cn 1]

The affricates and stops of Assiniboine are often described as voiced rather than voiceless, due to intervocalic voicing rules which result in surface voiced forms. [8]

Oral vowels

Character we use: IPA Symbol Assiniboine Pronunciation
i i i as in police
u u oo as in book
e e e as in a in mate
o o o as in vote
a a a as in father

Nasal vowels

Character IPA Symbol Also used as
ą ã an, an, aη, aN
į ĩ in, in, iη, iN
ų ũ un, on, un, uη, uN

There are five oral vowels in Assiniboine, /i u e o a/, and three nasal vowels, /ĩ ũ ã/.[8]

Words that follow above rules

  • /bahá/ hill
  • /pahá/ hair
  • /čupó/ fog
  • /ptą/ otter
  • /pka/ heavy
  • /psi/ rice
  • /pša/to sneeze

[10]

Syllable structure

Syllables are primarily of CV structure. While codas are possible, they are restricted and uncommon, often becoming restructured as the onset of the following syllable. Onsets may include up to two consonants but codas must be simplex. Possible onset clusters are given in the following table:[11]

Second
p t k s š c m n
First p - Script error: No such module "Interlinear". - Script error: No such module "Interlinear". Script error: No such module "Interlinear". Script error: No such module "Interlinear". - -
t - - Script error: No such module "Interlinear". - - - - -
k Script error: No such module "Interlinear". Script error: No such module "Interlinear". - Script error: No such module "Interlinear". Script error: No such module "Interlinear". Script error: No such module "Interlinear". Script error: No such module "Interlinear". Script error: No such module "Interlinear".
s Script error: No such module "Interlinear". Script error: No such module "Interlinear". Script error: No such module "Interlinear". - - Script error: No such module "Interlinear". Script error: No such module "Interlinear". Script error: No such module "Interlinear".
š Script error: No such module "Interlinear". Script error: No such module "Interlinear". Script error: No such module "Interlinear". - - Script error: No such module "Interlinear". Script error: No such module "Interlinear". Script error: No such module "Interlinear".
x Script error: No such module "Interlinear". Script error: No such module "Interlinear". - - - Script error: No such module "Interlinear". Script error: No such module "Interlinear". Script error: No such module "Interlinear".
m - - - - - - - Script error: No such module "Interlinear".

Grammar

Morphology

Morphological processes for Assiniboine language are primarily agglutinating.[8] In addition, the character of morpheme alternation in Assiniboine may be classified in terms of phoneme loss, phoneme shift, contraction, nasalization loss, syllable loss, syntactic contraction, and syntactic alternation. [12]

Morphophonemics

Examples from Levin (1964).[12]

Contraction->When two syllabics come into contact they contract as in:

/a/+/i/ > /i/

Script error: No such module "Interlinear". Script error: No such module "Interlinear".

/i/+/i/ > /i/

Script error: No such module "Interlinear".

/a/+/u/ > /u/

Script error: No such module "Interlinear".

Phoneme loss: Syllabics

when /a/ is in medial position between /k/ and /h/:

/a/> /∅/

Script error: No such module "Interlinear".

when /o/ is in the medial position between /i/ and/k/:

/o/>/∅/

Script error: No such module "Interlinear".

when /e/ is in medial position between /p/ and /k/:

/e/>/Φ/

Script error: No such module "Interlinear".

Phoneme loss: semi syllabics

/y/ > /∅/ when
/y/ follows /n/

Script error: No such module "Interlinear".

Phoneme loss: non syllanics

/k/ is in medial position between/u/ and/k/ or /u/ and /h/ or /u/ and /n/ or /u/ and /y/

/k/ > /∅/

Script error: No such module "Interlinear". Script error: No such module "Interlinear".

Phoneme shift: syllanics

/i/ > /a/ before /n/

Script error: No such module "Interlinear".

Phoneme shift: non syllabics

When /a/--/e/ is in medial position between/g/ and /š/

/g/ > /x/

Script error: No such module "Interlinear".

When /a/--/e/ is in medial position between/g/ and /c/

/g/ > /x/

Script error: No such module "Interlinear".

When /g/ is in medial position between /a/ and /y/

/g/ > /x/

Script error: No such module "Interlinear".

Nasalization loss exists as follows:

/ą/ > /a/

Script error: No such module "Interlinear".

Syllable loss occurs as follows:

/ye/ > /Φ/ Ex) iyópe... ye "to pay" so, iyópe + wa + ye > iyópewa "I pay"

Syntactic contraction: personal inflectional morphemes

wa "I" + ni "you" > ci "I...you";

Script error: No such module "Interlinear".

Syntactic contraction with verbal themes occurs as follows

/i/ + /k/ - /kk/ > c;

Script error: No such module "Interlinear".

Syntactic alternation

/a/ > /e/ in verbal theme

Script error: No such module "Interlinear".

/a/>/e/ in nomial theme

Script error: No such module "Interlinear".

/a/>/e/ with the future suffix;

Script error: No such module "Interlinear".

Syntax

Assiniboine is SOV word order. Elements order might be different from the canonical SOV, this is not free nor scrambling word order, but instead, the result of topicalization or other movements. Out of context sentences are always interpreted as SOV order even if it sounds odd. For example, 'the man bit the dog', unless an element is moved into a focus position. Focused element sentences are highly marked, and practically, a strange semantic reading is preferred over an interpretation of OSV. For example, the following sentence was interpreted as 'A banana ate the boy' by a native speaker, and to get the OSV reading out of it the object must be stressed, for example if the sentence was given as a reply to the question 'What did the boy eat?'.[13] Script error: No such module "Interlinear".

Vocabulary

  1. wąži - one
  2. nųba - two
  3. yamni - three
  4. tópa - four
  5. záptą - five
  6. šákpe - six
  7. iyušna - seven
  8. šaknoğą - eight
  9. napcuwąga - nine
  10. wikcémna - ten
  11. saba - black
  12. ska - white
  13. ša - red
  14. to - blue

More words can be found in the Dakota-English Dictionary[14]

Writing system

Class 1

wa- 1st person+singular
ya- 2nd person

Class 2

ma- 1st person+singular
ni- 2nd person

For both class 1 and 2

ũ- 1st person-singular
o- 3rd person
wica- 3rd person
ci- 1st person + singular subject/ 2nd person object[6]

Notes

  1. Cumberland (2005) includes /h/ as a glide rather than fricative due to its frequent place assimilation to the following vowel.

References

  1. 1.0 1.1 Assiniboine at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015)
  2. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  3. For the usage of the term "nakona" by Fort Peck's Assiniboine, cf. Fort Peck Community College and NHE
  4. 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Parks & DeMallie 1992.
  5. Miller, D., Smith, D., McGeshick, J. R., Shanley, J., & Shields, C. (2008). The History of the Assiniboine and Sioux Tribes of the Fort Peck Indian Reservation, Montana, 1800-2000. Montana: Montana Historical Society Press.
  6. 6.0 6.1 6.2 West 2003.
  7. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  8. 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Cumberland 2005.
  9. Ethnologue (cf. above).
  10. Hollow, R. C.. (1970). A Note on Assiniboine Phonology. International Journal of American Linguistics, 36(4), 296–298. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/1264256
  11. Reproduced from Cumberland (2005).
  12. 12.0 12.1 Levin, N. B. (1964).The Assiniboine language. Bloomington: Indiana University.
  13. West 2003, pp. 48–49.
  14. Riggs, S. R. (1892). A Dakota-English Dictionary. Washington: US Government Printing

Bibliography

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External links