Bembo

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For the Italian poet, humanist, cardinal, and literary theorist, see Pietro Bembo.
BemboMT.svg
Category Serif
Classification Old-style
Designer(s) Francesco Griffo
Giovanni Antonio Tagliente
Monotype
Foundry Monotype
Variations Bembo Titling
Bembo Condensed Italic (Fairbank)

Bembo is a 1929 old-style serif typeface most commonly used for body text. It is based on a design cut by Francesco Griffo for printer Aldus Manutius around 1495, and named for his first publication with it, a small 1496 book of writing by the poet and cleric Pietro Bembo.[1][2]

The revival was designed by the Monotype Corporation around 1928-9, as part of a revival of interest in the types used in renaissance printing.[3] It has held lasting popularity since as an attractive, legible book typeface.[4] Prominent users of Bembo have included the Everyman's Library series, Penguin Books, both Oxford and Cambridge University Press and Edward Tufte.[5]

History

Type specimen by Aldus Manutius, from Pietro Bembo's De Aetna, 1495–96.

The roman, or regular style of Bembo was designed by Griffo, sometimes called 'Francesco da Bologna' (of Bologna). He cut punches for the Venetian press of the humanist printer Aldus Manutius.[6] Manutius at first printed only works in Greek. His first printing in the Latin alphabet in February 1496 (1495 by the Venetian calendar) was a book entitled Petri Bembi de Aetna Angelum Chabrielem liber, a 60-page text about a journey to Mount Aetna written by the young Italian humanist poet Pietro Bembo, later a Cardinal and secretary to Pope Leo X.[1][7] Six years later Griffo was responsible for the first italic types.[8]

A second version of the roman face with recut capitals followed in 1499 and this type was used to print Manutius' famous illustrated Hypnerotomachia Poliphili.[2][9][10]

Griffo was the first punch-cutter to fully express the character of the humanist hand that contemporaries preferred for manuscripts of classics and literary texts, in distinction to the book hand humanists dismissed as a gothic hand or the everyday chancery hand. One of the main characteristic that distinguished Griffo's types from the earlier Venetian type tradition of Nicolas Jenson is the way in which the ascenders of the lowercase letters stand taller than the capitals; Griffo also apparently introduced the convention in roman that the cross-stroke of the 'e' be horizontal.[1] Modern font designer Robert Slimbach described Griffo's work as a breakthrough leading to an "ideal balance of beauty and functionality."[11] In France, his work inspired many French printers and punchcutters such as Geoffroy Tory and Claude Garamond, even though the typeface of De Aetna with its original capitals was apparently only used in about twelve books between 1496 and 1499.[1][12][13][14][15]

Griffo's roman typeface, with several replacements of capitals, continued to be used by Manutius's company until the 1550s, when a 'wholesale change' brought in French typefaces which had been created by Garamond, Pierre Haultin and Robert Granjon under its influence.[2] Ultimately, old-style fonts like all of these fell out of use with the arrival of the much more geometric Didone types of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, only returning to popularity with the arrival of the Arts and Crafts movement.[16]

Italic

Bembo's italic is based on the work of calligrapher and handwriting teacher Giovanni Antonio Tagliente (sometimes written Giovannantonio). He published a writing manual, The True Art of Excellent Writing in Venice in 1524, after the time of Manutius and Griffo, with engravings and some text set in an italic typeface presumably based on his calligraphy.[17][18][19][lower-alpha 1] (Tagliente did not only publish on handwriting, but also self-help guides on learning to read, arithmetic, embroidery and a book of model love letters.[20][21][22]) At the time italic fonts, based on calligraphy of the period, were often used in book printing as a way to save space and as an approximation of literary handwriting. It too, together with the work of his contemporary Ludovico Vicentino degli Arrighi, was imitated in France, with imitations appearing from 1528 onwards.[13]

Monotype history

Bembo in metal type.
Giovanni Antonio Tagliente's 1524 writing manual, which inspired Bembo's italic.

Monotype Bembo is generally regarded as one of the most handsome revivals of Aldus Manutius’s 15th-century roman type. It was created under the influence of Monotype executive and printing historian Stanley Morison by the design team at the Monotype factory in Salfords, Surrey.

Bembo's development took place following a series of major developments in printing technology which had occurred over the last fifty years. The hot metal typesetting systems of the period, of which Monotype's was one of the most popular, allowed metal type to be quickly cast under the control of a keyboard, eliminating the need to manually cast metal type and slot it into place into a printing press. With no need to keep type in stock, just the [[Matrix (printing)|matrixes used as moulds to cast the type, printers could use a wider range of fonts. In addition, pantograph engraving had allowed matrices to be mechanically engraved from drawings large plan drawings rather than hand-carved at the size of the letter to be printed as before. This removed much of the labour and unpredictability of earlier matrix manufacture and allowed the same basic design to be rapidly issued in a large range of sizes.

Among Bembo's more distinctive characteristics, the capital Q's tail starts from the glyph's centre, the uppercase J has a slight hook, and there are two versions of uppercase R, one with a longer tail following Griffo and one with a shorter tail.[23] Many lowercase letters exhibit hints of sinuous curves reminiscent of those generated by hand-drawn letters; the termination of the arm of both the r and the e flare slightly upward and outward. The lowercase c has a subtle forward slant. Characters h, m, and n have a slight returned curve on their final stem, so the right-hand stem of the h is not quite vertical. In italic, the k has an elegantly curved stroke in the lower-right and descenders on the p, q and y end with a flat horizontal stroke.[24] In the 1950s, Monotype noted that its features included: "serifs fine slab, fine-bracketed and in l.c. prolonged to right along baseline."[25] This meant that many of the serifs (especially the horizontals, for example on the 'W') are fine lines of quite uniform width, rather than forming an obvious curve leading into the main form of the letter.

Monotype commissioned from the calligrapher Alfred Fairbank a nearly upright italic design based on the work of 16th-century writing master Ludovico Vicentino degli Arrighi, a contemporary to Tagliente, and considered using it as Bembo's companion italic before deciding it was too eccentric for this purpose.[18][lower-alpha 2] Monotype created a more conventional design influenced by Tagliente's typeface and sold Fairbank's design as Bembo Condensed Italic.[27][28][29] It was digitised as 'Fairbank' in 2003, and sold independently of Monotype's Bembo digitisations.[30][31][lower-alpha 3] Monotype's publicity team described the italic as 'fine, tranquil' in a 1931 showing, emphasising their desire to avoid a design that seemed too eccentric.[32]

Writing in the anthology Typographic Specimens: The Great Typefaces, Jeff Price commented that Bembo became noted for its ability to "provide a text that is extremely consistent in color and texture," helping it to "remain one of the most popular book types since its release."[33] Modern font designer Nick Shinn has also commented "Bembo has a sleek magnificence, born of high-precision technology at the service of accomplished production skills, which honours the spirit of the original, and an exotic grace of line which humbles most new designs made more ostensibly for the new technology."[34]

Bembo does not faithfully copy all the features of Renaissance printing, instead blending them with a twentieth-century sensibility and the expectations of contemporary typefaces. A notable eccentricity of Griffo's type was an asymmetrical 'M' with no serif at top right, so odd it has been suggested it may have been the result of faulty casting of type, that was often copied in French imitations by Garamond and his contemporaries.[13] Monotype's revival declined to follow this, or the curving capital 'Y' used by Manutius in the tradition of the Greek letter upsilon, sometimes called a 'palm Y'.[lower-alpha 4] (Nesbitt has described the capitals as 'a composite design in the spirit of [Griffo's] type.'[38]) Monotype also cut italic capitals sloped to match the lower-case, whereas at the time of Bembo's inspiration capital letters were always drawn upright in the Roman inscriptional tradition. The expansive ascenders of Tagliente's type were shortened and the curl to the right replaced with more conventional serifs.

The bold (Monotype's invention, since Griffo and his contemporaries did not use bold type) is extremely solid, providing a very clear contrast to the regular styles, and Monotype also added lining (upper-case height) figures as well as the text figures (at lower-case height) used in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.[39] Mosley suggests that the numerals of Bembo were based on those Monotype had already developed for the typeface Plantin.[40]

Related fonts

Pietro Bembo in the mid-1530s, painted by Lucas Cranach the Younger

Poliphilus and Blado

Monotype had already designed two other types inspired by the same period of Italian printing and calligraphy, the roman Poliphilus (1923) and italic Blado.[41][42] Made more eccentric and irregular than the sleek lines of Bembo to evoke the feel of antique printing, these remained in Monotype's catalogue and have been digitised, but are much less known today.[36][43][44][45][46] Bembo can therefore be seen as an iteration of a preexisting design concept towards mass market appeal, taking the basic idea of the Griffo design and (unlike Poliphilus) updating its appearance to match the more sophisticated printing possible by the 1920s.[40]

Poliphilus is named after the book Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, one of Manutius's most famous books in the Latin alphabet, which was printed with the same roman as De Aetna but recut capitals.[2] Blado is named after the printer Antonio Blado, a colleague of Arrighi.[18][47] Morison preferred Bembo's roman but noted that he felt the eccentricity of the Blado italic was more interesting, as has Mosley more recently.[40] Unlike Bembo, both in metal featured a Greek-influenced 'Y' with a curving head, as in the original.[9][36]

Centaur

Monotype around the same time as Bembo licensed and released the font Centaur.[48] Its roman is based on a slightly earlier period of Italian renaissance printing than Bembo, the work of Nicolas Jenson in Venice around 1470 (the so-called Venetian style). Like Bembo, its italic comes from the 1520s, being again loosely based on the work of Arrighi around 1520.[49][50][51] Compared to Bembo it is somewhat lighter in structure, something particularly true in its digital facsimile.[52][lower-alpha 5] Penguin often used it for headings and titles of 'classic' editions, particularly its capitals and italic. (Its lower-case does not so effectively harmonise with Bembo due to the different letter shapes.[53][54])

Titling fonts

Monotype created several titling designs based on Renaissance printing that could be considered complementary to Bembo: Bembo Titling (based directly on Bembo's capitals, but more delicate to suit a larger text size) and the more geometric Felix Titling in 1934, inspired by humanist capitals drawn by Felice Feliciano in 1463.[55][56] In the hot metal type era Monotype also issued a titling version of Centaur, which was often used by Penguin. (It has not been digitised, possibly because Monotype's Centaur digitisation is quite light already.)

Digitisations and derivatives

Monotype have released two separate digitisations named Bembo and more recently Bembo Book, as well as the more slender caps-only display font Bembo Titling and the alternate italic design Fairbank.[57][58][59] Bembo Book is considered to be superior by being thicker and more suitable for body text, as well as for offering the alternate R for better-spaced body text.[23][60][61]

Monotype's original, early digitisation of Bembo was not universally liked.[62] Future Monotype executive Akira Kobayashi commented:

"I got into a slight panic. None of the letters looked like Bembo! For a moment I froze in front of the computer, thinking about writing a letter of complaint to the company for sending us the wrong font. After a while I checked the Bembo Italic and I slowly began to realise that the fonts were Bembo. I calmed down enough to recall that the typeface was originally designed for metal type, and most of the specimens and texts I saw were set in metal type in text size. That was why the images of the characters did not overlap. I knew that a metal typeface was cut or designed separately for each size, but a film composition or digital face is a kind of compromise having proportions designed for reduction and enlargement. I was overwhelmed to see the huge gap. Then I looked into the types used in Western offset-litho prints to see the digital Bembo types in use...the types that were originally designed for hot-metal often looked too light and feeble...Bembo Book is more or less what I expected."[63]

While Bembo Book is considered the superior digitisation, the original continues to offer the advantages of two extra weights (semi- and extra-bold) and infant styles with simplified 'a' and 'g' characters resembling handwriting; its lighter appearance may also be of use on printing equipment with greater ink spread. Cross-licensing has meant that it is sold by a range of vendors, often at very low prices. As an example of this, Fontsite obtained the rights to resell a derivative of the original digitisation, using the alternative name Borgia and Bergamo, upgrading it by additional OpenType features such as small capitals and historical alternate characters.[64]

A major professional competitor to Bembo is Agmena, created by Jovica Veljović and released by Linotype in 2014.[65][66] Intended as a unified serif design supporting Roman, Greek and a range of Cyrillic alphabets such as Serbian, it features a more calligraphic italic than Bembo with swash capitals and support for Greek ligatures.[67][68][69] A looser interpretation of the Griffo designs is Iowan Old Style, designed by John Downer. With a larger x-height (tall lower-case letters) and influences of signpainting, it was intended to be particularly readable, especially on displays and signage. It is a default font in Apple's iBooks application.[70][71][72] Not explicitly influenced by Bembo but also influenced by Griffo is Minion by Robert Slimbach.[73] Released by Adobe, it is one of the most popular typefaces used in modern books.[74]

Two open-source designs based on Bembo are Cardo and ET Book. The Cardo fonts, developed by David J. Perry for use in classical scholarship and also including Greek and Hebrew, are freely available under the SIL Open Font License.[75] Statistician and designer Edward Tufte commissioned an alternative digitisation for his books in a limited range of styles and languages, which was released as an open-source font as 'ET Book' in September 2015.[76]

Some organisations using Bembo have commissioned custom versions for their own use. The Yale face, developed by Matthew Carter as a corporate font for Yale University, is available exclusively to "Yale students, employees, and authorized contractors for use in Yale publications and communications. It may not be used for personal or business purposes, and it may not be distributed to non-Yale personnel."[77] A notable, highly divergent adaptation of Bembo was used by Heathrow and other British airports for many years. Designed by Shelley Winters and named BAA Bembo or BAA Sign, it was very bold with a high x-height.[78][79] It has never been made commercially available.

Timeline

Large composition matrix-case with Bembo 270-16 roman, prepared for casting with a standard wedge S5-13.75 set. Hot metal typesetting systems cast type using the engraved matrices under the control of a keyboard.
A Monotype machine keyboard; the characters to be printed are recorded on a paper reel at the top.
Large composition matrix-case with Bembo 270-24 pt roman, 19.5 set

The Renaissance

  • 1496 Griffo's roman
  • 1501 Griffo's italic; development of italic type follows over the next fifty years.
  • 1515 Death of Manutius
  • 1518 Death of Griffo (approx.)
  • 1520s Tagliente publishes in Venice, Arrighi in Rome (possibly also Venice). Both are former calligraphers who publish writing manuals.
  • 1522-5 Tagliente publishes a writing manual The True Art of Excellent Writing, as does Arrighi, La Operina... around the same time.[17][80][81][lower-alpha 6] Arrighi's friend Gian Giorgio Trissino writes of Arrighi that "in calligraphy he has surpassed all other men of our age so [he now does] in print all that was formerly done with the pen, in his beautiful types he has gone beyond all other printers."[19] His contemporary Antonio Blado publishes in Rome in an italic apparently derived from Arrighi's work.
  • 1527 War in central Italy. Arrighi is probably killed as a result of the Sack of Rome.[19][84]
  • 1528 Tagliente dies in Venice.[81]
  • 1535 Blado appointed printer to the papacy and remains in this role until his death in 1567.
  • 1530s-1550s France becomes a centre of the typefounding industry under the influence of the work of Manutius and others. French typefaces replace old Italian designs at the Aldine Press in Venice. Tradition that italic capitals should slope like the lower case established.[2]

20th Century

  • 1910s The italic calligraphy style of the Italian renaissance is revived by calligraphers including Edward Johnston and Alfred Fairbank.[18]
  • 1923 Monotype releases Blado, an italic based on the work of Arrighi and Antonio Blado, and Poliphilus, a roman based on the work of Griffo.
  • 1926 Edward Johnston develops a font based on his italic calligraphy, but it remains obscure.[18]
  • 1926 Frederic Warde creates an italic based on the work of Arrighi. It is now almost always used as the companion italic of the font Centaur, but initially had an independent existence.[18]
  • 1928-9 Monotype develops and releases Bembo, based on the work of Griffo but much smoother in texture. After considering releasing an italic by Fairbank based the work of Arrighi, Monotype abandons the idea, making Bembo's default italic on the Tagliente model.[18]
  • 1929 Monotype releases Centaur and the Warde italic as a matching set.[48]

Available matrices

270: Bembo (roman/italic)
composition-matrices UA.91: 6D - 14pt [85]
variants: long and short descenders
corps: 6pt (6D) 7pt (7D) 8pt (8D) 9pt (8D) 10pt (10D) 10.5pt (9D) 11pt (10D) 12pt (11D) 13pt (12D)

14pt (14D)
set: 6.75 7.5 7.5 8.25 8.5 9 9.5 10.25 11 11.5
line: M.1237 M.1243 M.1243 M.1270 M.1292 M.1312 M.1322 M.1343 M.1378 M.1444
large composition matrices: 14pt-24pt
corps: 14pt (14D) 16pt (16D) 18pt (18D) 24pt (24D)
UA. 91 163 169 169
set: 11.5 13.5 14.5 19.5
line: T.1344 T.1559 T.1725 T.2302
display-matrices:
corps: 14pt 16pt 18pt 22pt op 24pt 24pt 30pt 36pt 48pt 60pt 72pt
line: T.1344 T.1559 T.1725 T.2104 T.2302 T.2824 T.3444 T.4648 T.5821 T.6980
428: Bembo Bold (roman/italic)
composition-matrices: UA.368: 6D - 14pt [86]
corps: 6pt (6D) 7D op 8p E 8pt (8D) 9pt (8D) 10pt (10D) 10.5pt (10D) 11pt (10D) 12pt (11D) 13pt (12D) 14pt (14D)
set: 6.75 7.5 7.5 8.25 8.5 9 9.5 10.25 11 11.5
line: M.1237 M.1243 M.1243 M.1270 M.1293 M.1312 M.1322 M.1353 M.1378 M.1444
groot-zetselmatrijzen: 14pt-18pt
corps: 16pt (16D) 18pt (18D)
UA. 399 399
set: 13.5 14.5
line: T.1559 T.1725
display-matrices:
corps: 24pt 30pt 36pt 48pt
line: T.2302 T.2824 T.3444 T.4648
294: Bembo Condensed Italic (italic-only)
composition-matrices: UA.360: 4 sizes: 10pt - 16pt UA.361: 16pt [87]
corps: 10pt (10D) 12pt (12D) 13pt (12D) 16pt
set: 8.5 10.25 11 13.5
line: M.1292 M.1353 M.1378 M.1559
428: Bembo Heavy: another name for Bembo Bold
509: Bembo semi-bold (roman/italic)
composition-matrices: UA.91: 5.5pt [88]
corps: 5.5pt (5.5D)
set: 6.5
line: M.1235
370: Bembo Titling (roman/italic)
display-matrices:[88]
corps: 24pt 30pt 36pt 42pt
line: T.2942 T.3614 T.4436 T.5196

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  3. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  4. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  5. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  6. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  7. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  8. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  10. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  11. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  12. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  14. ↑ The Monotype Corporation limited, specimen blade 5-64, Bembo 270
  15. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  16. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  21. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  22. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  24. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  25. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  26. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  27. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  28. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  29. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  30. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  31. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  32. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  33. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  34. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  35. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  37. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  38. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  39. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  41. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  42. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  43. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  44. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  45. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  46. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  47. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  49. ↑ Friedl, Ott, and Stein, Typography: an Encyclopedic Survey of Type Design and Techniques Throughout History. Black Dog & Levinthal Publishers: 1998. ISBN 1-57912-023-7, pp. 540-41.
  50. ↑ Alexander S. Lawson, Anatomy of a Typeface David R. Godine: 1990. ISBN 978-0-87923-333-4, pp. 92-93.
  51. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  52. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  53. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  54. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  55. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  56. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  57. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  58. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  59. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  60. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  61. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  62. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  63. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  64. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  65. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  66. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  67. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  68. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  69. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  70. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  71. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  72. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  73. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  74. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  75. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  76. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  77. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  78. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  79. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  80. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  82. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  83. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  84. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  85. ↑ The Monotype corporation ltd, 3-46 en 3-71
  86. ↑ The Monotype corporation ltd, 8-59
  87. ↑ The Monotype corporation ltd, 5-51
  88. ↑ 88.0 88.1 The Monotype corporation ltd, 5-76
  1. ↑ This is a shortened form of the full title.[20]
  2. ↑ Fairbank reported that he was not told that his italic was intended to be a complementary design.[26]
  3. ↑ Monotype executive Stanley Morison said that the design "looked its best when given sole possession of the page."[18]
  4. ↑ This style of 'Y' was used or at least available in Poliphilus and Blado, although not in the modern digitisation.[35][36][37] A somewhat more muted form of it is used in Hermann Zapf's Palatino.
  5. ↑ Unlike Bembo, Centaur's first rather spindly digitisation was never augmented with a more text-oriented one, possibly because it is particularly commonly used in titles anyway.
  6. ↑ Arrighi's book had a complex publication history apparently involving a dispute between Arrighi and his publisher, making its dating and printing location(s) both somewhat involved.[82][83]

External links

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