Bhakti movement

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The Child Saint Sambandar, Chola dynasty, Tamil Nadu. from Freer Gallery of Art, Washington DC, He is one of the most prominent of the sixty-three Nayanars of the Saiva bhakti movement.

The Bhakti movement refers to the theistic devotional trend that emerged in medieval Hinduism.[1] It originated in the seventh-century Tamil south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards.[1] It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.[2]

The Bhakti movement regionally developed around different gods and goddesses, such as Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti goddesses), and Smartism.[3][4][5] The movement was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta.[6][7]

The movement has traditionally been considered as an influential social reformation in Hinduism, and provided an individual-focussed alternative path to spirituality regardless of one's caste of birth or gender.[2] Postmodern scholars question this traditional view and whether the Bhakti movement ever was a reform or rebellion of any kind.[8] They suggest Bhakti movement was a revival, reworking and recontextualization of ancient Vedic traditions.[9]

Scriptures of the Bhakti movement include the Bhagavad Gita, Bhagavata Purana and Padma Purana.[10][11]

Terminology

The Sanskrit word bhakti is derived from the root bhaj, which means "divide, share, partake, participate, to belong to".[12][13] The word also means "attachment, devotion to, fondness for, homage, faith or love, worship, piety to something as a spiritual, religious principle or means of salvation".[14][15]

The meaning of the term Bhakti is analogous but different than Kama. Kama connotes emotional connection, sometimes with sensual devotion and erotic love. Bhakti, in contrast, is spiritual, a love and devotion to religious concepts or principles, that engages both emotion and intellection.[16] Karen Pechelis states that the word Bhakti should not be understood as uncritical emotion, but as committed engagement.[16] Bhakti movement in Hinduism refers to ideas and engagement that emerged in the medieval era on love and devotion to religious concepts built around one or more gods and goddesses. One who practices bhakti is called a bhakta.[17]

Textual roots

Ancient Indian texts, dated to be from the 1st millennium BCE, such as the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, the Katha Upanishad and the Bhagavad Gita mention Bhakti.[18]

Shvetashvatara Upanishad

The last of three epilogue verses of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, 6.23, uses the word Bhakti as follows,

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यस्य देवे परा भक्तिः यथा देवे तथा गुरौ ।
तस्यैते कथिता ह्यर्थाः प्रकाशन्ते महात्मनः ॥ २३ ॥[19]

He who has highest Bhakti (love, devotion)[20] of Deva (God),
just like his Deva, so for his Guru (teacher),
To him who is high-minded,
these teachings will be illuminating.

— Shvetashvatara Upanishad 6.23[21][22]

This verse is notable for the use of the word Bhakti, and has been widely cited as among the earliest mentions of "the love of God".[20][23] Scholars[24][25] have debated whether this phrase is authentic or later insertion into the Upanishad, and whether the terms "Bhakti" and "God" meant the same in this ancient text as they do in the medieval and modern era Bhakti traditions found in India. Max Muller states that the word Bhakti appears only in one last verse of the epilogue, could have been a later insertion and may not be theistic as the word was later used in much later Sandilya Sutras.[26] Grierson as well as Carus note that the first epilogue verse 6.21 is also notable for its use of the word Deva Prasada (देवप्रसाद, grace or gift of God), but add that Deva in the epilogue of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad refers to "pantheistic Brahman" and the closing credit to sage Shvetashvatara in verse 6.21 can mean "gift or grace of his Soul".[20]

Doris Srinivasan[27] states that the Upanishad is a treatise on theism, but it creatively embeds a variety of divine images, an inclusive language that allows "three Vedic definitions for personal deity". The Upanishad includes verses wherein God can be identified with the Supreme (Brahman-Atman, Self, Soul) in Vedanta monistic theosophy, verses that support dualistic view of Samkhya doctrines, as well as the synthetic novelty of triple Brahman where a triune exists as the divine soul (Deva, theistic God), individual soul (self) and nature (Prakrti, matter).[27][28] Tsuchida writes that the Upanishad syncretically combines monistic ideas in Upanishad and self-development ideas in Yoga with personification of Shiva-Rudra deity.[29] Hiriyanna interprets the text to be introducing "personal theism" in the form of Shiva Bhakti, with a shift to monotheism but in henotheistic context where the individual is encouraged to discover his own definition and sense of God.[30]

Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad Gita, a post-Vedic scripture composed in 5th to 2nd century BCE,[31] introduces bhakti marga (the path of faith/devotion) as one of three ways to spiritual freedom and release, the other two being karma marga (the path of works) and jnana marga (the path of knowledge).[32][33] In verses 6.31 through 6.47 of the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna as an avatar of deity Vishnu, describes bhakti yoga and loving devotion, as one of the several paths to the highest spiritual attainments.[34][35]

Sutras

Shandilya and Narada are credited with two Bhakti texts, the Shandilya Bhakti Sutra and Narada Bhakti Sutra.[36][37][38]

History

Meerabai is considered as one of the most significant sants in the Vaishnava bhakti movement. She was from a 16th-century aristocratic family in Rajasthan.[39]

The Bhakti movement originated in South India during the seventh century CE, spread northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra, and gained wide acceptance in fifteenth-century Bengal and northern India.[1]

The movement started with the Saiva Nayanars[40] and the Vaisnava Alvars. Their efforts ultimately help spread bhakti poetry and ideas throughout India by the 12th–18th century CE.[40][41]

The Alvars, which literally means "those immersed in God", were Vaishnava poet-saints who sang praises of Vishnu as they travelled from one place to another.[42] They established temple sites such as Srirangam, and spread ideas about Vaishnavism. Their poems, compiled as Alwar Arulicheyalgal or Divya Prabhandham, developed into an influential scripture for the Vaishnavas. The Bhagavata Purana's references to the South Indian Alvar saints, along with its emphasis on bhakti, have led many scholars to give it South Indian origins, though some scholars question whether this evidence excludes the possibility that bhakti movement had parallel developments in other parts of India.[43][44]

Like the Alvars, the Saiva Nayanar poets were influential. The Tirumurai, a compilation of hymns on Shiva by sixty-three Nayanar poet-saints, developed into an influential scripture in Shaivism. The poets' itinerant lifestyle helped create temple and pilgrimage sites and spread spiritual ideas built around Shiva.[42] Early Tamil-Siva bhakti poets influenced Hindu texts that came to be revered all over India.[45]

Some scholars state that the Bhakti movement's rapid spread in India in the 2nd millennium, was in part a response to the arrival of Islam[46] and subsequent Islamic rule in India and Hindu-Muslim conflicts.[47][48][49] This view is contested by some scholars,[49] with Rekha Pande stating that singing ecstatic bhakti hymns in local language was a tradition in south India before Muhammad was born.[50] According to Pande, the psychological impact of Muslim conquest may have initially contributed to community-style bhakti by Hindus.[50] Yet other scholars state that Muslim invasions, their conquering of Hindu Bhakti temples in south India and seizure/melting of musical instruments such as cymbals from local people, was in part responsible for the later relocation or demise of singing Bhakti traditions in the 18th century.[51]

According to Wendy Doniger, the nature of Bhakti movement may have been affected by the "surrender to god" daily practices of Islam when it arrived in India.[47] In turn it influenced devotional practices in Islam such as Sufism,[52] and other religions in India from 15th century onwards, such as Sikhism, Christianity,[53] and Jainism.[54]

Klaus Witz, in contrast, traces the history and nature of Bhakti movement to the Upanishadic and the Vedanta foundations of Hinduism. He writes, that in virtually every Bhakti movement poet, "the Upanishadic teachings form an all-pervasive substratum, if not a basis. We have here a state of affairs that has no parallel in the West. Supreme Wisdom, which can be taken as basically non-theistic and as an independent wisdom tradition (not dependent on the Vedas), appears fused with highest level of bhakti and with highest level of God realization."[55]

Poets, writers and musicians

The Bhakti movement witnessed a surge in Hindu literature in regional languages, particularly in the form of devotional poems and music.[11][56][57] This literature includes the writings of the Alvars and Nayanars, poems of Andal,[58] Basava,[59] Bhagat Pipa,[60] Allama Prabhu, Akka Mahadevi, Kabir, Nanak (founder of Sikhism),[59] Tulsidas, Gusainji, Ghananand,[58] Ramananda (founder of Ramanandi Sampradaya),[61] Raskhan,[62] Ravidas,[59] Jayadeva,[58] Namdev,[59] Tukaram, Mirabai,[39] Ramprasad Sen,[63] Sankardev,[64] Vallabha Acharya,[59] and the teachings of saints like Caitanya.[65]

The earliest writers from the 7th to 10th century CE known to have influenced the poet-saints driven movements include Campantar, Tirunavukkaracu, Cuntarar, Nummalvar, Adi Shankara, Manikkavacakar and Nathamuni.[66] Several 11th and 12th century writers developed different philosophies within the Vedanta school of Hinduism, which were influential to the Bhakti tradition in medieval India. These include Ramanuja, Madhava, Vallabha and Nimbarka.[58][66] These writers championed a spectrum of philosophical positions ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta.[6][7]

Theosophy of bhakti movement: Nirguna and Saguna Brahman

The Bhakti movement of Hinduism saw two ways of imaging the nature of the divine (Brahman) – Nirguna and Saguna.[67] Nirguna Brahman was the concept of the Ultimate Reality as formless, without attributes or quality.[68] Saguna Brahman, in contrast, was envisioned and developed as with form, attributes and quality.[68] The two had parallels in the ancient panthestic unmanifest and theistic manifest traditions, respectively, and traceable to Arjuna-Krishna dialogue in the Bhagavad Gita.[67][69] It is the same Brahman, but viewed from two perspectives, one from Nirguni knowledge-focus and other from Saguni love-focus, united as Krishna in the Gita.[69] Nirguna bhakta's poetry were Jnana-shrayi, or had roots in knowledge.[67] Saguna bhakta's poetry were Prema-shrayi, or with roots in love.[67] In Bhakti, the emphasis is reciprocal love and devotion, where the devotee loves God, and God loves the devotee.[69]

Jeaneane Fowler states that the concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, at the root of Bhakti movement theosophy, underwent more profound development with the ideas of Vedanta school of Hinduism, particularly those of Adi Shankara's Advaita Vedanta, Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta.[68] Two 12th-century influential treatises on bhakti were Sandilya Bhakti Sutra – a treatise resonating with Nirguna-bhakti, and Narada Bhakti Sutra – a treatise that leans towards Saguna-bhakti.[70]

Nirguna and Saguna Brahman concepts of the Bhakti movement has been a baffling one to scholars, particularly the Nirguni tradition because it offers, states David Lorenzen, "heart-felt devotion to a God without attributes, without even any definable personality".[71] Yet given the "mountains of Nirguni bhakti literature", adds Lorenzen, bhakti for Nirguna Brahman has been a part of the reality of the Hindu tradition along with the bhakti for Saguna Brahman.[71] These were two alternate ways of imagining God during the bhakti movement.[67]

Social impact

The Bhakti movement was a devotional transformation of medieval Hindu society, wherein Vedic rituals or alternatively ascetic monk-like lifestyle for moksha gave way to individualistic loving relationship with a personally defined god.[2] Salvation which was previously considered attainable only by men of Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya castes, became available to everyone.[2] Most scholars state that Bhakti movement provided women and members of the Shudra and untouchable communities an inclusive path to spiritual salvation.[72] Some scholars disagree that the Bhakti movement was premised on such social inequalities.[73][74]

Poet-saints grew in popularity, and literature on devotional songs in regional languages became profuse.[2] These poet-saints championed a wide range of philosophical positions within their society, ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta.[6] Kabir, a poet-saint for example, wrote in Upanishadic style, the state of knowing truth:[75]

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There's no creation or creator there,
no gross or fine, no wind or fire,
no sun, moon, earth or water,
no radiant form, no time there,
no word, no flesh, no faith,
no cause and effect, nor any thought of the Veda,
no Hari or Brahma, no Shiva or Shakti,
no pilgrimage and no rituals,
no mother, father or guru there...

— Kabir, Shabda 43, Translated by K Schomer and WH McLeod[75]

The early 15th-century Bhakti poet-sant Pipa stated,[76]

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Within the body is the god, within the body the temple,
within the body all the Jangamas[77]
within the body the incense, the lamps and the food-offerings,
within the body the puja-leaves.

After searching so many lands,
I found the nine treasures within my body,
Now there will be no further going and coming,
I swear by Rama.

— Pīpā, Gu dhanasari, Translated by Vaudeville[78]

The impact of the Bhakti movement in India was similar to that of the Protestant Reformation of Christianity in Europe.[6] It evoked shared religiosity, direct emotional and intellection of the divine, and the pursuit of spiritual ideas without the overhead of institutional superstructures.[79] Practices emerged bringing new forms of spiritual leadership and social cohesion among the medieval Hindus, such as community singing, chanting together of deity names, festivals, pilgrimages, rituals relating to Saivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism.[40][80] Many of these regional practices have survived into the modern era.[2]

Seva, daana and community kitchens

The Bhakti movement introduced new forms of voluntary social giving such as Seva (service, for example to a temple or guru school or community construction), Dāna (charity), and community kitchens with free shared food.[81] Of community kitchen concepts, the vegetarian Guru ka Langar introduced by Nanak became a well established institution over time, starting with northwest India, and expanding to everywhere Sikh communities are found.[82] Other sants such as Dadu Dayal championed similar social movement, a community that believed in Ahimsa (non-violence) towards all living beings, social equality, and vegetarian kitchen, as well as mutual social service concepts.[83] Bhakti temples and matha (Hindu monasteries) of India adopted social functions such as relief to victims after natural disaster, helping the poor and marginal farmers, providing community labor, feeding houses for the poor, free hostels for poor children and promoting folk culture.[84]

Sikhism and Bhakti movement

A Bhagti (Bhakti) in progress using an Aarti plate in a Sikh Gurdwara. Bhagti is an important tradition within Sikhism, and some scholars call it a Bhakti sect of Indian traditions.[85]

David Lorenzen states that Bhakti is an important idea within 15th-century religion Sikhism, just like Hinduism.[86] In Sikhism, Bhakti of nirguni (devotion to divine without attributes) is emphasized.[86][87][88] Guru Nanak, the first Sikh Guru and the founder of Sikhism, was a Nirguni Bhakti saint.[89][90]

In contrast to nirguni focus of Sikhism, Hinduism developed both saguni and nirguni bhakti (devotion to divine with or without attributes) as well as alternate paths to spirituality,[90] with the options left to the choice of a Hindu.[86][91]

Buddhism, Jainism and Bhakti movement

Bhakti has been a prevalent practice in various Jaina sects, wherein learned Tirthankara (Jina) and human gurus are considered superior beings and venerated with offerings, songs and Āratī prayers.[92] John Cort suggests that the bhakti movement in later Hinduism and Jainism may share roots in vandan and pujan concepts of the Jaina tradition.[92]

Medieval-era bhakti traditions among non-theistic Indian traditions such as Buddhism and Jainism have been reported by scholars, wherein the devotion and prayer ceremonies were dedicated to an enlightened guru, primarily Buddha and Jina Mahavira respectively, as well as others.[93] Karel Werner notes that Bhatti (Bhakti in Pali) has been a significant practice in Theravada Buddhism, and states, "there can be no doubt that deep devotion or bhakti / bhatti does exist in Buddhism and that it had its beginnings in the earliest days".[94]

Controversy and doubts in postmodern scholarship

Postmodern scholars question whether the 19th- and early 20th-century theories about Bhakti movement in India, its origin, nature and history is accurate. Pechilis in her book on Bhakti movement, for example, states[95]

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Scholars writing on bhakti in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were agreed that bhakti in India was preeminently a monotheistic reform movement. For these scholars, the inextricable connection between monotheism and reform has both theological and social significance in terms of the development of Indian culture. The orientalist images of bhakti were formulated in a context of discovery: a time of organized cultural contact, in which many agencies, including administrative, scholarly and missionary – sometimes embodied in a single person – sought knowledge of India. Through the Indo-European language connection, early orientalists believed that they were, in a sense, seeing their own ancestry in the antique texts and "antiquated" customs of Indian peoples. In this respect, certain scholars could identify with the monotheism of bhakti. Seen as a reform movement, bhakti presented a parallel to the orientalist agenda of intervention in the service of the empire.

— Karen Pechilis, The Embodiment of Bhakti[95]

Madeleine Biardeau states, as does Jeanine Miller, that Bhakti movement was neither a reform nor an sudden innovation, but the continuation and expression of ideas to be found in Vedas, Bhakti marga teachings of the Bhagavad Gita, the Katha Upanishad and the Shvetashvatara Upanishad.[18][96]

John Stratton Hawley describes recent scholarship which questions the old theory of Bhakti movement origin and "story of south-moves-north", then states that the movement had multiple origins, mentioning Brindavan in north India as another center.[97] Hawley describes the controversy and disagreements between Indian scholars, quotes Hegde's concern that "Bhakti movement was a reform" theory has been supported by "cherry-picking particular songs from a large corpus of Bhakti literature" and that if the entirety of the literature by any single author such as Basava is considered along with its historical context, there is neither reform nor a need for reform.[74]

Sheldon Pollock writes that the Bhakti movement was neither a rebellion against Brahmins and the upper castes nor a rebellion against the Sanskrit language, because many of the prominent thinkers and earliest champions of the Bhakti movement were Brahmins and from upper castes, and because much of the early and later Bhakti poetry and literature was in Sanskrit.[98] Further, states Pollock, evidence of Bhakti trends in ancient southeast Asian Hinduism in the 1st millennium CE, such as those in Cambodia and Indonesia where Vedic era is unknown, and where upper caste Tamil Hindu nobility and merchants introduced Bhakti ideas of Hinduism, suggest the roots and the nature of Bhakti movement to be primarily spiritual and political quest instead of rebellion of some form.[99][100]

John Guy states that the evidence of Hindu temples and Chinese inscriptions from 8th century CE about Tamil merchants, presents Bhakti motifs in Chinese trading towns, particularly the Kaiyuan Temple (Quanzhou).[101] These show Saivite, Vaishnavite and Hindu Brahmin monasteries revered Bhakti themes in China.[101]

Scholars increasingly are dropping, states Karen Pechilis, the old premises and the language of "radical otherness, monotheism and reform of orthodoxy" for Bhakti movement.[9] Many scholars are now characterizing the emergence of Bhakti in medieval India as a revival, reworking and recontextualization of the central themes of the Vedic traditions.[9]

See also

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References

Citations

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Schomer & McLeod (1987), p. 1.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Schomer & McLeod (1987), pp. 1-2.
  3. ↑ Lance Nelson (2007), An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies (Editors: Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff), Liturgical Press, ISBN 978-0814658567, pages 562-563
  4. ↑ SS Kumar (2010), Bhakti - the Yoga of Love, LIT Verlag Münster, ISBN 978-3643501301, pages 35-36
  5. ↑ Wendy Doniger (2009), Bhakti, Encyclopedia Britannica; The Four Denomination of Hinduism Himalayan Academy (2013)
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Schomer & McLeod (1987), p. 2.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Christian Novetzke (2007), Bhakti and Its Public, International Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 11, No. 3, page 255-272
  8. ↑ Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, pages 10-16
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, pages 15-16
  10. ↑ Catherine Robinson (2005), Interpretations of the Bhagavad-Gita and Images of the Hindu Tradition, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415346719, pages 28-30
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, pages 26-32, 217-218
  12. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  13. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  14. ↑ Monier Monier-Williams, Monier-Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, Motilal Banarsidass, page 743
  15. ↑ bhakti Sanskrit English Dictionary, University of Koeln, Germany
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, pages 19-21
  17. ↑ Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, page 3
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Madeleine Biardeau (1994), Hinduism: The Anthropology of a Civilization (Original: French), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195633894 (English Translation by Richard Nice), pages 89-91
  19. ↑ Shvetashvatara Upanishad 6.23 Wikisource
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Paul Carus, The Monist at Google Books, pages 514-515
  21. ↑ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, page 326
  22. ↑ Max Muller, Shvetashvatara Upanishad, The Upanishads, Part II, Oxford University Press, page 267
  23. ↑ WN Brown (1970), Man in the Universe: Some Continuities in Indian Thought, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520017498, pages 38-39
  24. ↑ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, pages 301-304
  25. ↑ Max Muller, The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, Oxford University Press, pages xxxii - xlii
  26. ↑ Max Muller, The Shvetashvatara Upanishad, Oxford University Press, pages xxxiv and xxxvii
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 D Srinivasan (1997), Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes, Brill, ISBN 978-9004107588, pages 96-97 and Chapter 9
  28. ↑ Lee Siegel, Commentary: Theism in Indian Thought, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 28, No. 4 (Oct., 1978), pages 419-423
  29. ↑ R Tsuchida (1985), Some Remarks on the Text of the Svetasvatara-Upanisad, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies (印度學佛教學研究), Vol. 34, No. 1, pages 460-468, Quote: "The Svetasvatara-Upanisad occupies a highly unique position among Vedic Upanisads as a testimony of the meditative and monistic Rudra-cult combined with Samkhya-Yoga doctrines."
  30. ↑ M. Hiriyanna (2000), The Essentials of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120813304, pages 32-36
  31. ↑ JD Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students, Sussex Academy Press, ISBN 978-1-84519-520-5, see Foreword
  32. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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  34. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  35. ↑ Christopher Key Chapple (Editor) and Winthrop Sargeant (Translator), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438428420, pages 302-303, 318
  36. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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  38. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 SM Pandey (1965), Mīrābāī and Her Contributions to the Bhakti Movement, History of Religions, Vol. 5, No. 1, pages 54-73
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  41. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  43. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  44. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  45. ↑ Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, pages 17-18
  46. ↑ Note: The earliest arrival dates are contested by scholars. They range from 7th to 9th century, with Muslim traders settling in coastal regions of Indian peninsula, to Muslims seeking asylum in Tamil Nadu, to raids in northwest India by Muhammad bin Qasim. See: Annemarie Schimmel (1997), Islam in the Indian subcontinent, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004061170, pages 3-7; Andre Wink (2004), Al-Hind: the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 90-04-09249-8
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Bhakti, Encyclopedia Britannica (2009)
  48. ↑ Karen Pechelis (2011), Bhakti Traditions, in The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies (Editors: Jessica Frazier, Gavin Flood), Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-0826499660, pages 107-121
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 John Stratton Hawley (2015), A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674187467, pages 39-61
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Rekha Pande (2014), Divine Sounds from the Heart—Singing Unfettered in their Own Voices, Cambridge UK, ISBN 978-1443825252, page 25
  51. ↑ Vasudha Narayanan (1994), The Vernacular Veda: Revelation, Recitation, and Ritual, The University of South Carolina Press, ISBN 978-0872499652, page 84
  52. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  53. ↑ Stephen Neill (2002), A history of Christianity in India, 1707-1858, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-89332-9, page 412
  54. ↑ Mary Kelting (2001), Singing to the Jinas: Jain laywomen, Maṇḍaḷ singing, and the negotiations of Jain devotion, Oxford University Press, page 87, ISBN 978-0-19-514011-8
  55. ↑ Klaus G Witz (1998), The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120815735, page 10
  56. ↑ Guy Beck (2011), Sonic Liturgy: Ritual and Music in Hindu Tradition, The University of South Carolina Press, ISBN 978-1611170375, Chapters 3 and 4
  57. ↑ David Kinsley (1979), The Divine Player: A Study of Kṛṣṇa Līlā, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-0896840195, pages 190-204
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 58.2 58.3 Richard Kieckhefer and George Bond (1990), Sainthood: Its Manifestations in World Religions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520071896, pages 116-122
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 59.2 59.3 59.4 John Stratton Hawley (2015), A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674187467, pages 304-310
  60. ↑ David Lorenzen (1995), Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791420256, pages 182-199
  61. ↑ William Pinch (1996), Peasants and Monks in British India, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520200616, pages 2-3, 53-81
  62. ↑ Rupert Snell (1991), The Hindi Classical Tradition: A Braj Bhāṣā Reader, Routledge, ISBN 978-0728601758, pages 39-40
  63. ↑ Rachel McDermott (2001), Singing to the Goddess: Poems to Kālī and Umā from Bengal, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195134346, pages 8-9
  64. ↑ Maheswar Neog (1995), Early History of the Vaiṣṇava Faith and Movement in Assam: Śaṅkaradeva and his times, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800076, pages 1-4
  65. ↑ Schomer & McLeod (1987).
  66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 Axel Michaels (2003), Hinduism: Past and Present, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691089539, pages 62-65
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 67.2 67.3 67.4 Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, page 21
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 68.2 Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, pages xxvii-xxxiv
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 69.2 Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, pages 207-211
  70. ↑ Jessica Frazier and Gavin Flood (2011), The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 978-0826499660, pages 113-115
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 David Lorenzen (1996), Praises to a Formless God: Nirguni Texts from North India, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791428054, page 2
  72. ↑ Iwao (1988), pp. 184-185
  73. ↑ Peter van der Veer (1987), [Taming the Ascetic: Devotionalism in a Hindu Monastic Order], Man, New Series, Vol. 22, No. 4, pages 680-695
  74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 John Stratton Hawley (2015), A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674187467, pages 338-339
  75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 Schomer & McLeod (1987), pp. 154-155.
  76. ↑ Nirmal Dass (2000), Songs of the Saints from the Adi Granth, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791446836, pages 181-184
  77. ↑ A term in Shaiva Hindu religiosity, referring to an individual who is always on the go, seeking, learning; See: Winnand Callewaert (2000), The Hagiographies of Anantadas: The Bhakti Poets of North India, Routledge, ISBN 978-0700713318, page 292
  78. ↑ Winnand Callewaert (2000), The Hagiographies of Anantadas: The Bhakti Poets of North India, Routledge, ISBN 978-0700713318, page 292
  79. ↑ John Hawley (2015), A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674187467, pages 1-4 and Introduction chapter
  80. ↑ Karen Pechelis (2011), The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies (Editor: Jessica Frazier), Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-1472511515, pages 22-23, 107-118
  81. ↑ Jill Mourdaunt et al, Thoughtful Fundraising: Concepts, Issues and Perspectives, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415394284, pages 20-21
  82. ↑ Gene Thursby (1992), The Sikhs, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004095540, page 12
  83. ↑ Schomer & McLeod (1987), pp. 181-189, 300.
  84. ↑ Helmut Anheier and Stefan Toepler (2009), International Encyclopedia of Civil Society, Springer, ISBN 978-0387939940, page 1169
  85. ↑ W. Owen Cole and Piara Singh Sambhi (1997), A Popular Dictionary of Sikhism: Sikh Religion and Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN 978-0700710485, page 22
  86. ↑ 86.0 86.1 86.2 David Lorenzen (1995), Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791420256, pages 1-3
  87. ↑ Hardip Syan (2014), in The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies (Editors: Pashaura Singh, Louis E. Fenech), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199699308, page 178
  88. ↑ A Mandair (2011), Time and religion-making in modern Sikhism, in Time, History and the Religious Imaginary in South Asia (Editor: Anne Murphy), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415595971, page 188-190
  89. ↑ Medieval History of India Bhakti Movement, Government of India (2011)
  90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 HL Richard (2007), Religious Movements in Hindu Social Contexts: A Study of Paradigms for Contextual “Church” Development International Journal of Frontier Missiology, Vol. 24, Issue 3, page 144
  91. ↑ John Martin Sahajananda (2014), Fully Human Fully Divine, Partridge India, ISBN 978-1482819557, pages 60-61
  92. ↑ 92.0 92.1 John Cort, Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN , pages 64-68, 86-90, 100-112
  93. ↑ Karen Pechelis (2011), The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies (Editor: Jessica Frazier), Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-1472511515, pages 109-112
  94. ↑ Karel Werner (1995), Love Divine: Studies in Bhakti and Devotional Mysticism, Routledge, ISBN 978-0700702350, pages 45-46
  95. ↑ 95.0 95.1 Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, pages 13-14
  96. ↑ J Miller (1996), Does Bhakti appear in the Rgveda?: An enquiry into the background of the hymns, ISBN 978-8172760656; see also J Miller (1995), in Love Divine: Studies in 'Bhakti and Devotional Mysticism (Editor: Karel Werner), Routledge, ISBN 978-0700702350, pages 5, 8-9, 11-32
  97. ↑ John Stratton Hawley (2015), A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674187467, page 10
  98. ↑ Sheldon Pollock (2009), The Language of the Gods in the World of Men, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520260030, pages 423-431
  99. ↑ Sheldon Pollock (2009), The Language of the Gods in the World of Men, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520260030, pages 529-534
  100. ↑ Keat Gin Ooi (2004), Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, ISBN 978-1576077702, page 587
  101. ↑ 101.0 101.1 John Guy (2001), The Emporium of the World: Maritime Quanzhou, 1000-1400 (Editor: Angela Schottenhammer), Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004117730, pages 283-299

Bibliography

  • Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903
  • David Lorenzen (1995), Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791420256
  • John Hawley (2015), A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674187467
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External links

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