French language

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French
français
Pronunciation [fʁɑ̃sɛ]
Native to France, now worldwide
(See geographical distribution below)
Native speakers
80 million (2015)[1]
220 million total speakers
Early forms
Latin (French alphabet)
French Braille
Signed French
(français signé)
Official status
Official language in



Numerous international organisations
Regulated by Académie française (French Academy)
Language codes
ISO 639-1 fr
ISO 639-2 fre (B)
fra (T)
ISO 639-3 fra
Glottolog stan1290[2]
Linguasphere 51-AAA-i
New-Map-Francophone World.PNG
  Regions where French is the main language
  Regions where it is an official language
  Regions where it is a second language
  Regions where it is a minority language
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters.

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French (le français [lə fʁɑ̃sɛ] or la langue française [la lɑ̃ɡ fʁɑ̃sɛz]) is a Romance language, belonging to the Indo-European family. It descended from the spoken Latin language of the Roman Empire, as did languages such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian, Catalan and others. French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues d'oïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, which French (Francien) has largely supplanted. French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the (Germanic) Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to France's past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, most notably Haitian Creole. A French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French.

French is the official language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie, the community of French-speaking countries. It is spoken as a first language in France, southern Belgium, western Switzerland, Monaco, certain parts of Canada and the United States, and by various communities elsewhere. As of 2015, 40% of the francophone population (including L2 and partial speakers) is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas, and 1% in Asia and Oceania.[1]

French is the fourth most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union.[3] 1/5 of non-Francophone Europeans speak French.[4] As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa and Asia. Most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast.[5] In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers,[1][6] and 190 million secondary speakers.[7] Approximately 270 million people are able to speak the language.[8] According to a demographic projection led by the Université Laval and the Réseau Démographie de l'Agence universitaire de la francophonie, total French speakers will number approximately 500 million people in 2025 and 650 million people by 2050.[9] The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, 80% of whom will be in Africa.[1]

French has a long history as an international language of commerce, diplomacy, literature, and scientific standards and is an official language of many international organisations including the United Nations, the European Union, NATO, the WTO, the International Olympic Committee, and the ICRC. In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Mandarin Chinese.[10]

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Geographic distribution

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Europe

File:Knowledge French EU map.svg
Knowledge of French in the European Union and candidate countries[11]

Spoken by 12% of the EU population, French is the fourth most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, after German, English and Italian; it is also the third most widely known language of the Union, after English and German (33% of the EU population report knowing how to speak English, whilst 22% of Europeans understand German and 20% French).[3][12]

Under the Constitution of France, French has been the official language of the Republic since 1992[13] (although the ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts made it mandatory for legal documents in 1539). France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases (though these dispositions are often ignored) and legal contracts; advertisements must bear a translation of foreign words.

In Belgium, French is the official language of Wallonia (excluding a part of the East Cantons, which are German-speaking) and one of the two official languages—along with Dutch—of the Brussels-Capital Region, where it is spoken by the majority of the population often as their primary language.[14]

French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland (along with German, Italian and Romansh) and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. The language divisions in Switzerland do not coincide with political subdivisions, and some cantons have bilingual status; for example, cities such Biel/Bienne or cantons such as Valais-Fribourg-Berne. French is the native language of about 20% of the Swiss population, and is spoken by 50.4%[15] of the population.

French is also an official language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley (Italy), while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands.

Africa

  Countries usually considered part of Francophone Africa.
Their population was 392 million in 2015 and it is forecast to reach 847 million in 2050.[16]
  Countries sometimes considered as Francophone Africa
  Countries that are not Francophone but are Members or Observers of the OIF

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A majority of the world's French-speaking population lives in Africa. According to the 2007 report by the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, an estimated 115 million African people spread across 31 Francophone countries can speak French as either a first or a second language.[5] This number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language.[5] Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050.[17] French is the fastest growing language on the continent (in terms of either official or foreign language).[18][19]

French is mostly a second language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast[20] and in Libreville, Gabon.[21] There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages.[22]

Sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth.[23] It is also where the language has evolved the most in recent years.[24][25] Some vernacular forms of French in Africa can be difficult to understand for French speakers from other countries,[26] but written forms of the language are very closely related to those of the rest of the French-speaking world.

North and South America

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The "arrêt" signs (French for "stop") are used in Canada while the international stop, which is also a valid French word, is used in France as well as other French-speaking countries and regions.

French is the second most common language in Canada, after English, and both are official languages at the federal level. It is the first language of 9.5 million people or 29.4% and the second language for 2.07 million or 6.4% of the entire population of Canada.[6] French is the sole official language in the province of Quebec, being the mother tongue for some 7 million people, or almost 80.1% (2006 Census) of the province. About 95.0% of the people of Quebec speak French as either their first or second language, and for some as their third language. Quebec is also home to the city of Montreal, which is the world's second largest French-speaking city, by number of first language speakers.[citation needed] New Brunswick and Manitoba are the only officially bilingual provinces, though full bilingualism is enacted only in New Brunswick, where about one third of the population is Francophone. French is also an official language of all of the territories (Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Yukon). Out of the three, Yukon has the most French speakers, comprising just under 4% of the population.[27] Furthermore, while French is not an official language in Ontario, the French Language Services Act ensures that provincial services are to be available in the language. The Act applies to areas of the province where there are significant Francophone communities, namely Eastern Ontario and Northern Ontario. Elsewhere, sizable French-speaking minorities are found in southern Manitoba, Nova Scotia, and the Port au Port Peninsula in Newfoundland and Labrador, where the unique Newfoundland French dialect was historically spoken. Smaller pockets of French speakers exist in all other provinces. The city of Ottawa, the Canadian capital, is also effectively bilingual, as it is on the other side of a river from Quebec, opposite the major city of Gatineau, and is required to offer governmental services in French as well as English.[citation needed]

French language spread in the United States. Counties marked in yellow are those where 6–12% of the population speaks French at home; brown, 12–18%; red, over 18%. French-based creole languages are not included.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2011), French is the fourth[28] most-spoken language in the United States after English, Spanish, and Chinese, when all forms of French are considered together and all dialects of Chinese are similarly combined. French remains the second most-spoken language in the states of Louisiana, Maine, Vermont and New Hampshire. Louisiana is home to many distinct dialects, collectively known as Louisiana French. Cajun French has the largest number of speakers, mostly living in Acadiana. According to the 2000 United States Census, there are over 194,000 people in Louisiana who speak French at home, the most of any state if Creole French is excluded.[29] New England French, essentially a variant of Canadian French, is spoken in parts of New England. Missouri French was historically spoken in Missouri and Illinois (formerly known as Upper Louisiana), but is nearly extinct today.[30]

French is one of Haiti's two official languages. It is the principal language of writing, school instruction, and administrative use. It is spoken by all educated Haitians and is used in the business sector. It is also used in ceremonial events such as weddings, graduations and church masses. About 70%–80% of the country's population have Haitian Creole as their first language; the rest speak French as a first language. The second official language is the recently standardized Haitian Creole, which virtually the entire population of Haiti speaks. Haitian Creole is one of the French-based creole languages, drawing the large majority of its vocabulary from French, with influences from West African languages, as well as several European languages. Haitian Creole is closely related to Louisiana Creole and the creole from the Lesser Antilles.[31]

Asia

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Southeast Asia

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French was the official language of the colony of French Indochina, comprising modern-day Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. It continues to be an administrative language in Laos and Cambodia, although its influence has waned in recent years.[32] In colonial Vietnam, the elites primarily spoke French, while many servants who worked in French households spoke a French pidgin known as "Tây Bồi" (now extinct). After French rule ended, South Vietnam continued to use French in administration, education, and trade.[33] Since the Fall of Saigon and the opening of a unified Vietnam's economy, French has gradually been effectively displaced as the main foreign language of choice by English. French nevertheless maintains its colonial legacy by being spoken as a second language by the elderly and elite populations and is presently being revived in higher education and continues to be a diplomatic language in Vietnam.

Middle East

Town sign in Standard Arabic and French at the entrance of Rechmaya in Lebanon.
An obsolete 100 Lebanese pound note with the French language inscriptions "Banque du Liban" and "Cent livres".
Lebanese license plate with the French language inscription "Liban".

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A former French colony, Lebanon designates Arabic as the sole official language, while a special law regulates cases when French can be publicly used. Article 11 of Lebanon's Constitution states that "Arabic is the official national language. A law determines the cases in which the French language is to be used".[34] French language in Lebanon is widely used as a second language by the Lebanese people, and is taught in many schools as a secondary language along with Arabic and English. The language is also used on Lebanese pound bank notes, on road signs, on Lebanese license plates, and on official buildings (alongside Arabic).

Similarly, Syria was also a French colony until 1943, but the French language is largely extinct in the country and is only limited to some members of the elite and middle classes.

A significant French-speaking community is also present in Israel, primarily among the community of French Jews in Israel, and many secondary schools offer French as a foreign language.

The United Arab Emirates has joined the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie as an observer, and Qatar has joined as a "member state". However, in both countries French is not spoken by almost any of the general population or migrant workers, but spoken by a small minority of those who invest in Francophone countries or have other financial or family ties. Their entrance into the organisation was aided a good deal by their investments into the Organisation and France itself.[35]

Oceania and Australasia

A 500-CFP franc (€4.20; US$5.65) banknote, used in French Polynesia, New Caledonia and Wallis and Futuna.

French is an official language of the Pacific Island nation of Vanuatu where 45% of the population can speak French.[36] In the French special collectivity of New Caledonia, 97% of the population can speak, read and write French, whereas only 1% have no knowledge of French.[37] In French Polynesia, 95% of the population can speak, read and write French, whereas only 2% have no knowledge of French.[38] In the French collectivity of Wallis and Futuna, 78% of the population can speak, read and write French, whereas 17% have no knowledge of French.[39]

Dialects

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Dialects of the French language in the world

History

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French is a Romance language (meaning that it is descended primarily from Vulgar Latin) that evolved out of the Gallo-Romance dialects spoken in northern France.

French replaced Latin as the most important language of diplomacy and international relations (lingua franca) in the 17th century. It retained this role until approximately the middle of the 20th century, when it was replaced by English as the United States became the dominant global power following the Second World War.[40][41] Stanley Meisler of the Los Angeles Times said that the fact that the Treaty of Versailles was also written in English as well as French was the "first diplomatic blow" against the language.[42]

Current status and economic, cultural and institutional importance

French remains one of the most important diplomatic languages,[21][unreliable source?] with the language being one of the working languages of NATO, the International Olympic Committee, the UN Secretariat, the Council of Europe, the International Court of Justice, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Organization of American States, European Commission, the Eurovision Song Contest the European Space Agency, World Trade Organisation and the North American Free Trade Agreement. It is also a working language in nonprofit organisations such as the Red Cross, Amnesty International, Médecins sans Frontières, or Médecins du Monde.[43] Given the demographic prospects of the French-speaking nations of Africa, Forbes released in 2014 an article which claimed that French "could be the language of the future".[44]

In 1997, George Werber published in Language Today a comprehensive academic study entitled "The World's 10 most influential languages".[45] In his article, Werber ranked French as being the second – after English – most influential language of the world, ahead of Spanish.[45] His criteria were not solely the numbers of native speakers, but also included the number of secondary speakers (which tends to be specially high for French among fellow world languages); the economic power of the countries using the language; the number of major areas in which the language is used; the number of countries using the language, and their respective population; and the linguistic prestige associated with the mastery of the language (Werber highlighted in particular that French benefits from a considerable linguistic prestige).[45] In 2008, Werber reassessed his article, and concluded that his findings were still correct since "the situation among the top ten remains unchanged."[46]

Knowledge of French is widely considered to be a crucial skill for business owners in the United Kingdom; a 2014 study found that 50% of British managers considered French to be a valuable asset for their business, thus ranking French as the most-sought after foreign language there, ahead of German (49%) and Spanish (44%).[47]

Phonology

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Although there are many French regional accents, foreign learners normally use only one variety of the language.

  • There are a maximum of 17 vowels in French, not all of which are used in every dialect: /a/, /ɑ/, /e/, /ɛ/, /ɛː/, /ə/, /i/, /o/, /ɔ/, /y/, /u/, /œ/, /ø/, plus the nasalized vowels /ɑ̃/, /ɛ̃/, /ɔ̃/ and /œ̃/. In France, the vowels /ɑ/, /ɛː/ and /œ̃/ are tending to be replaced by /a/, /ɛ/ and /ɛ̃/ in many people's speech, but the distinction of /ɛ̃/ and /œ̃/ is present in Meridional French. In Quebec and Belgian French, the vowels /ɑ/, /ə/, /ɛː/ and /œ̃/ are present.
  • Voiced stops (i.e., /b, d, ɡ/) are typically produced fully voiced throughout.
  • Voiceless stops (i.e., /p, t, k/) are unaspirated.
  • Nasals: The velar nasal /ŋ/ can occur in final position in borrowed (usually English) words: parking, camping, swing. The palatal nasal /ɲ/ can occur in word initial position (e.g., gnon), but it is most frequently found in intervocalic, onset position or word-finally (e.g., montagne).
  • Fricatives: French has three pairs of homorganic fricatives distinguished by voicing, i.e., labiodental /f/~/v/, dental /s/~/z/, and palato-alveolar /ʃ/~/ʒ/. Notice that /s/~/z/ are dental, like the plosives /t/~/d/ and the nasal /n/.
  • French has one rhotic whose pronunciation varies considerably among speakers and phonetic contexts. In general, it is described as a voiced uvular fricative, as in [ʁu] roue, "wheel". Vowels are often lengthened before this segment. It can be reduced to an approximant, particularly in final position (e.g., fort), or reduced to zero in some word-final positions. For other speakers, a uvular trill is also common, and an apical trill [r] occurs in some dialects.
  • Lateral and central approximants: The lateral approximant /l/ is unvelarised in both onset (lire) and coda position (il). In the onset, the central approximants [w], [ɥ], and [j] each correspond to a high vowel, /u/, /y/, and /i/ respectively. There are a few minimal pairs where the approximant and corresponding vowel contrast, but there are also many cases where they are in free variation. Contrasts between /j/ and /i/ occur in final position as in /pɛj/ paye, "pay", vs. /pɛi/ pays, "country".

French pronunciation follows strict rules based on spelling, but French spelling is often based more on history than phonology. The rules for pronunciation vary between dialects, but the standard rules are:

  • final consonants: Final single consonants, in particular s, x, z, t, d, n, p and g are normally silent. (A consonant is considered "final" when no vowel follows it even if one or more consonants follow it.) The final letters f, k, q, and l, however, are normally pronounced. The final c is sometimes pronounced like in bac, sac, roc but can also be silent like in blanc or estomac. The final r is usually silent when it follows an e in a word of two or more syllables, but it is pronounced in some words (hiver, super, cancer etc.).
    • When the following word begins with a vowel, however, a silent consonant may once again be pronounced, to provide a liaison or "link" between the two words. Some liaisons are mandatory, for example the s in les amants or vous avez; some are optional, depending on dialect and register, for example, the first s in deux cents euros or euros irlandais; and some are forbidden, for example, the s in beaucoup d'hommes aiment. The t of et is never pronounced and the silent final consonant of a noun is only pronounced in the plural and in set phrases like pied-à-terre.
    • Doubling a final n and adding a silent e at the end of a word (e.g., chienchienne) makes it clearly pronounced. Doubling a final l and adding a silent e (e.g., gentilgentille) adds a [j] sound if the l is preceded by the letter i.
  • elision or vowel dropping: Some monosyllabic function words ending in a or e, such as je and que, drop their final vowel when placed before a word that begins with a vowel sound (thus avoiding a hiatus). The missing vowel is replaced by an apostrophe. (e.g., *je ai is instead pronounced and spelled → j'ai). This gives, for example, the same pronunciation for l'homme qu'il a vu ("the man whom he saw") and l'homme qui l'a vu ("the man who saw him"). However, for Belgian French the sentences are pronounced differently; in the first sentence the syllable break is as "qu'il-a", while the second breaks as "qui-l'a". It can also be noted that, in Quebec French, the second example (l'homme qui l'a vu) is more emphasized on l'a vu.

Writing system

Alphabet

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French is written with the 26 letters of the basic Latin script, with four diacritics appearing on vowels (circumflex accent, acute accent, grave accent, diaeresis) and the cedilla appearing in "ç".

There are two ligatures, "œ" and "æ".

Orthography

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French spelling, like English spelling, tends to preserve obsolete pronunciation rules. This is mainly due to extreme phonetic changes since the Old French period, without a corresponding change in spelling (see Vocabulary below). Moreover, some conscious changes were made to restore Latin orthography:

  • Old French doit > French doigt "finger" (Latin digitus)
  • Old French pie > French pied "foot" [Latin pes (stem: ped-)]

As a result, it can be difficult to predict the spelling of a word based on the sound. Final consonants are generally silent, except when the following word begins with a vowel (see Liaison (French)). For example, the following words end in a vowel sound: pied, aller, les, finit, beaux. The same words followed by a vowel, however, may sound the consonants, as they do in these examples: beaux-arts, les amis, pied-à-terre.

On the other hand, a given spelling usually leads to a predictable sound. In particular, a given vowel combination or diacritic predictably leads to one phoneme.

French writing, as with any language, is affected by the spoken language. In Old French, the plural for animal was animals. The /als/ sequence was unstable and was turned into a diphthong /aus/. This change was then reflected in the orthography: animaus. The us ending, very common in Latin, was then abbreviated by copyists (monks) by the letter x, resulting in a written form animax. As the French language further evolved, the pronunciation of au turned into /o/ so that the u was reestablished in orthography for consistency, resulting in modern French animaux (pronounced first /animos/ before the final /s/ was dropped in contemporary French). The same is true for cheval pluralized as chevaux and many others. In addition, castel pl. castels became château pl. châteaux

  • Nasal: n and m. When n or m follows a vowel or diphthong, the n or m becomes silent and causes the preceding vowel to become nasalized (i.e., pronounced with the soft palate extended downward so as to allow part of the air to leave through the nostrils). Exceptions are when the n or m is doubled, or immediately followed by a vowel. The prefixes en- and em- are always nasalized. The rules are more complex than this but may vary between dialects.
  • Digraphs: French uses not only diacritics to specify its large range of vowel sounds and diphthongs, but also specific combinations of vowels, sometimes with following consonants, to show which sound is intended.
  • Gemination: Within words, double consonants are generally not pronounced as geminates in modern French (but geminates can be heard in the cinema or TV news from as recently as the 1970s, and in very refined elocution they may still occur). For example, illusion is pronounced [ilyzjɔ̃] and not [ilːyzjɔ̃]. But gemination does occur between words. For example, une info ("a news item" or "a piece of information") is pronounced [ynɛ̃fo], whereas une nympho ("a nymphomaniac") is pronounced [ynːɛ̃fo].
  • Accents are used sometimes for pronunciation, sometimes to distinguish similar words, and sometimes for etymology alone.
    • Accents that affect pronunciation
      • The acute accent (l'accent aigu) é (e.g., école—school) means that the vowel is pronounced /e/ instead of the default /ə/.
      • The grave accent (l'accent grave) è (e.g., élève—pupil) means that the vowel is pronounced /ɛ/ instead of the default /ə/.
      • The circumflex (l'accent circonflexe) ê (e.g. forêt—forest) shows that an e is pronounced /ɛ/ and that an ô is pronounced /o/. In standard French, it also signifies a pronunciation of /ɑ/ for the letter â, but this differentiation is disappearing. In the mid 18th century, the circumflex was used in place of s after a vowel, where that letter s was not pronounced. Thus, forest became forêt and hospital became hôpital.
      • The diaeresis (le tréma) (e.g., naïf—naive, Noël—Christmas) as in English, specifies that this vowel is pronounced separately from the preceding one, not combined, and is not a schwa.
      • The cedilla (la cédille) ç (e.g., garçon—boy) means that the letter ç is pronounced /s/ in front of the back vowels a, o and u (c is otherwise /k/ before a back vowel). C is always pronounced /s/ in front of the front vowels e, i, and y, thus ç is never found in front of front vowels.
    • Accents with no pronunciation effect
      • The circumflex does not affect the pronunciation of the letters i or u and, in most dialects, a as well. It usually indicates that an s came after it long ago, as in île (isle, compare with English island). The explanation is that some words share the same orthography, so the circumflex is put here to mark the difference between the two words. For example, dites (you say) / dîtes (you said), or even du (of the) / (past for the verb devoir = must, have to, owe; in this case, the circumflex disappears in the plural and the feminine).
      • All other accents are used only to distinguish similar words, as in the case of distinguishing the adverbs and ("there", "where") from the article la ("the" feminine singular) and the conjunction ou ("or"), respectively.

Some proposals exist to simplify the existing writing system, but they still fail to gather interest.[48][49][50][51]

Grammar

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French grammar shares several notable features with most other Romance languages, including

French declarative word order is subject–verb–object although a pronoun object precedes the verb. Some types of sentences allow for or require different word orders, in particular inversion of the subject and verb like "Parlez-vous français?" when asking a question rather than just "Vous parlez français?" Both questions mean the same thing; however, a rising inflection is always used on both of them whenever asking a question, especially on the second one. Specifically, the first translates into "Do you speak French?" while the second one is literally just "You speak French?" To avoid inversion while asking a question, 'Est-ce que' (literally 'is it that') may be placed in the beginning of the sentence. "Parlez-vous français?" may become "Est-ce que vous parlez français?"

Vocabulary

The majority of French words derive from Vulgar Latin or were constructed from Latin or Greek roots. In many cases a single etymological root appears in French in a "popular" or native form, inherited from Vulgar Latin, and a learned form, borrowed later from Classical Latin. The following pairs consist of a native noun and a learned adjective:

However a historical tendency to gallicise Latin roots can be identified, whereas English conversely leans towards a more direct incorporation of the Latin:

There are also noun-noun and adjective-adjective pairs:

It can be difficult to identify the Latin source of native French words, because in the evolution from Vulgar Latin, unstressed syllables were severely reduced and the remaining vowels and consonants underwent significant modifications.

More recently the linguistic policy of the French language academies of France and Quebec has been to provide French equivalents[52] to (mainly English) imported words, either by using existing vocabulary, extending its meaning or deriving a new word according to French morphological rules. The result is often two (or more) co-existing terms for describing the same phenomenon, with varying rates of success for the French equivalent.

  • mercatique / marketing
  • finance fantôme / shadow banking
  • bloc-notes / blog
  • ailière / wingsuit
  • tiers-lieu / coworking

It is estimated that 12% (4,200) of common French words found in a typical dictionary such as the Petit Larousse or Micro-Robert Plus (35,000 words) are of foreign origin (where Greek and Latin learned words are not seen as foreign). About 25% (1,054) of these foreign words come from English and are fairly recent borrowings. The others are some 707 words from Italian, 550 from ancient Germanic languages, 481 from other Gallo-Romance languages, 215 from Arabic, 164 from German, 160 from Celtic languages, 159 from Spanish, 153 from Dutch, 112 from Persian and Sanskrit, 101 from Native American languages, 89 from other Asian languages, 56 from other Afro-Asiatic languages, 55 from Slavic languages and Baltic languages, 10 from Basque and 144 (about 3%) from other languages.[53]

Numerals

The French counting system is partially vigesimal: twenty (vingt) is used as a base number in the names of numbers from 60 to 99.

The French word for 80 is quatre-vingts, literally "four twenties", and the word for 75 is soixante-quinze, literally "sixty-fifteen". This reform arose after the French Revolution to unify the different counting systems (mostly vigesimal near the coast, because of Celtic (via Breton) and Viking influences).

This system is comparable to the archaic English use of score, as in "fourscore and seven" (87), or "threescore and ten" (70).

In Old French (during the Middle Ages), all numbers from 30 to 99 could be said in either base 10 or base 20, e.g. vint et doze (twenty and twelve) for 32, dous vinz et diz (two twenties and ten) for 50, uitante for 80, or nonante for 90.[54]

Belgian French, Swiss French, Aostan French[55] and the French used in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Burundi are different in this respect.

In Belgium, Switzerland and in the Aosta Valley, 70 and 90 are septante and nonante. In Switzerland, depending on the local dialect, 80 can be quatre-vingts (Geneva, Neuchâtel, Jura) or huitante (Vaud, Valais, Fribourg). Octante had been used in Switzerland in the past, but is now considered archaic,[56] while in the Aosta Valley 80 is huitante.[55] In Belgium and in its former African colonies, however, quatre-vingts is universally used.

It should also be noted that French, like most European languages, uses a space to separate thousands[57] where English uses a comma or (more recently) a space. The comma is used in French numbers as a decimal point: 2,5 = deux virgule cinq.

Units

Cardinal numbers in French, from 1 to 20, are as follows:

After Twenty, numbers use base ten logic (vingt et un, vingt-deux, vingt-trois...)

Tens

Cardinal numbers in French, by tens from 10 to 100, are as follow:

After One hundred, numbers use base ten logic (cent dix, cent vingt, cent trente...)

Hundreds

Cardinal numbers in French, by hundreds from 100 to 2000, are as follow:

  • One hundred: cent /sɑ̃(t)/
  • Two hundreds: deux cents
  • Three hundreds: trois cents, (Archaism: quinze-vingts)
  • Four hundreds: quatre cents
  • Five hundreds: cinq cents
  • Six hundreds: six cents
  • Seven hundreds: sept cents
  • Eight hundreds: huit cents
  • Nine hundreds: neuf cents
  • One thousand: mille[lower-alpha 6]
  • One thousand one hundred: onze cents or mille cent[lower-alpha 7]
  • One thousand two hundreds: douze cents or mille deux cents[lower-alpha 7]
  • One thousand three hundreds: treize cents or mille trois cents[lower-alpha 7]
  • One thousand four hundreds: quatorze cents or mille quatre cents[lower-alpha 7]
  • One thousand five hundreds: quinze cents or mille cinq cents[lower-alpha 7]
  • One thousand six hundreds: seize cents or mille six cents[lower-alpha 7]
  • One thousand seven hundreds: dix-sept cents or mille sept cents
  • One thousand eight hundreds: dix-huit cents or mille huit cents
  • One thousand nine hundreds: dix-neuf cents or mille neuf cents
  • Two thousands: deux mille

After deux mille (2000), only the second option is used (deux mille cent, deux mille deux cents, deux mille trois cents...)

The words vingt and cent take the plural -s only when they are the last word of the number: quatre-vingts (eighty) and quatre-vingt-un (eighty-one), cinq cents (five hundreds) and cinq cent trente (five hundreds and thirty). When a number using vingt or cent is used as an ordinal numeral adjective, the words vingt or cent stay unchanged[62]

Scales[lower-alpha 8]

Cardinal numbers in French, by exponentiation points, from 100 to 1020, are as follow:

  • One: un/une /œ̃/ (m) ~ /yn/ (f)
  • Ten: dix /dis/
  • One hundred: cent /sɑ̃(t)/
  • One thousand: mille /mil/
  • Ten thousands: dix mille
  • Hundred thousand: cent mille
  • One million: un million /mi.ljɔ̃/
  • Ten millions: dix millions
  • Hundred millions: cent millions
  • One billion: un milliard
  • Ten billion: dix milliards
  • Hundred billion: cent milliards
  • One trillion: un billion /bi.ljɔ̃/
  • Ten trillion: dix billions
  • Hundred trillion: cent billions
  • One quadrillion: un billiard
  • Ten quadrillion: dix billiards
  • Hundred quadrillion: cent billiards
  • One quintillion: un trillion
  • Ten quintillion: dix trillions
  • Hundred quintillion: cent trillions

Notes

  1. It has been suggested that Nine and New homophonographs are related and that it would be an unusual preservation of the octal number system speculated to be formerly used in proto-Indo-European language, though the evidence supporting this is slim.[58]
  2. Septante is used in Belgium and in Switzerland. Its use is dated in Eastern France and archaic elsewhere in France.
  3. Huitante is used in Vaud, Valais, Fribourg, archaic in France.
  4. Octante is used, but dated, in Romandie and in Southern France. Its use is archaic in other parts of France.
  5. Nonante is used in Belgium, Switzerland and, dated, in Eastern France, archaic in other parts of France.
  6. Formerly singular of the now invariable mille, mil is now only used in formal documents to write dates between mil un (1001) and mil neuf cent quatre-vingt-dix-neuf (1999).[59]
  7. 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 While both styles are correct and concurrently used, numbers above mille and under deux mille are usually counted by hundreds from onze cents up to seize cent quatre-vingt-dix-neuf and are then indifferently counted both styles[60] in informal language while the count by adding hundreds to one thousand, like in mille cent, mille six cents, is favoured in written language, especially in juridical, administrative and scientific works.[61]
  8. Nota Bene that English use the short scale while French use the long scale.

Words

English French Quebec accent Touraine accent
French Français (people) or français (language) <phonos file="Qc-français.ogg">[fʁ̥ãsɛ]</phonos> Audio file "françaisF.ogg" not found
English Anglais (people) or anglais (language) Audio file "anglais.ogg" not found Audio file "AnglaisF.ogg" not found
Yes Oui (si when countering an assertion or a question expressed in the negative) <phonos file="Qc-oui ouais ouin.ogg">[wi]</phonos> Audio file "ouiF.ogg" not found
No Non <phonos file="non.ogg">[nɔ̃]</phonos> Audio file "nonF.ogg" not found
Hello! Bonjour ! (formal) or Salut ! (informal) or "Allô" (Quebec French or when answering on the telephone) [bõʒuːʁ] Audio file "bonjourF.ogg" not found
Good evening! Bonsoir ! [bõswɑːʁ] Audio file "bonsoirF.ogg" not found
Good night! Bonne nuit ! [bɔn nɥi] Audio file "Bonne_nuitF.ogg" not found
Goodbye! Au revoir ! Audio file "au_revoir.ogg" not found Audio file "au_revoirF.ogg" not found
Have a nice day! Bonne journée ! Audio file "bonne_journée.ogg" not found Audio file "bonne_journéeF.ogg" not found
Please/if you please S’il vous plaît (formal) or S’il te plaît (informal) <phonos file="Qc-s'il_vous_plaît.ogg">[sɪl vu plɛ]</phonos> Audio file "s'il_vous_plaitF.ogg" not found
Thank you Merci [mɛʁsi] Audio file "merciF.ogg" not found
You are welcome De rien (informal) or Ce n’est rien (informal) ("it is nothing") or Je vous en prie (formal) or Je t’en prie (informal) or Bienvenue (Quebec) [də ʁjẽ] <phonos file="Fr-de rien-fr-Paris.ogg">[dœ ʁjæ̃]</phonos>
I am sorry Pardon or Désolé or Je suis désolé (if male) / Je suis désolée (if female) or Excuse-moi (informal) / Excusez-moi (formal) / "Je regrette" <phonos file="Qc-pardon.ogg">[paʁdɒ̃]</phonos> / <phonos file="Qc-désolé.ogg">[dezɔle]</phonos> Audio file "pardonF.ogg" not found / <phonos file="Fr-désolé.ogg">[dezɔle]</phonos>
Who? Qui ? Audio file "qui.ogg" not found Audio file "quiF.ogg" not found
What? Quoi ? (←informal; used as "What?" in English) or Pardon ? (←formal; used the same as "Pardon ?" in English) [kwa] <phonos file="quoiF.ogg">[kwa]</phonos>
When? Quand ? Audio file "quand.ogg" not found Audio file "quandF.ogg" not found
Where? Où ? [u] <phonos file="où.ogg">[u]</phonos>
Why? Pourquoi ? <phonos file="pourquoi.ogg">[puʁ̥kwa]</phonos> Audio file "pourquoiF.ogg" not found
What is your name? Comment vous appelez-vous ? (formal) or Comment t’appelles-tu ? (informal) [kɔmã vu z‿aple vu], [kɔmã t‿apɛl t͡sy] <phonos file="fr-comment vous appelez-vous.ogg">[kɔmɒ̃ vu z‿aple vu]</phonos>, <phonos file="fr-comment t'appelles-tu.ogg">[kɔmɒ̃ t‿apɛl t͡sy]</phonos>
My name is... Je m'appelle... <phonos file="fr-je m'appelle.ogg">[ʒø mapɛl]</phonos>
Which Quel/Quels(pl.)/Quelle(fem.) [kɛl] [kɛl]
Because Parce que / Car <phonos file="parce_que.ogg">[paʁ̥skœ]</phonos> <phonos file="Fr-Parce que.ogg">[paʁ̥s(ø)kø]</phonos>
Because of À cause de [a kou̯z dœ] <phonos file="fr-à cause de.ogg">[a koz dø]</phonos>
Therefore, Donc [dõːk] <phonos file="Fr-donc.ogg">[dõk]</phonos>
Maybe Peut-être <phonos file="Qc-peut-être.ogg">[pœt‿aɪ̯tʀ̥]</phonos> <phonos file="Fr-peut-être.ogg">[pøt‿ɛtʁ̥]</phonos>
How? Comment ? [kɔmã] Audio file "commentF.ogg" not found
How much? Combien ? [kõbjẽ] Audio file "combienF.ogg" not found
I do not understand. Je ne comprends pas. Audio file "je_ne_comprends_pas.ogg" not found Audio file "je_ne_comprends_pasF.ogg" not found
Yes, I understand. Oui, je comprends. Except when responding to a negatively posed question, in which case Si is used preferentially over Oui <phonos file="oui_je_comprends.ogg">[wi ʒœ kõpʁ̥ã]</phonos> Audio file "Oui,_je_comprendsF.ogg" not found
I agree Je suis d’accord. "D’accord" can be used without je suis. [ʒə sɥi dakɑɔ̯ʁ] [ʒø sɥi dakɔʁ]
Help! Au secours ! (à l’aide !) Audio file "au_secours.ogg" not found Audio file "au_secoursF.ogg" not found
At what time...? À quelle heure...? [a kɛl aœ̯ʁ] [a kɛl œʁ]
Today Aujourd'hui [oʒuʁd͡zɥi] [oʒuʁdɥi]
Can you help me, please? Pouvez-vous m’aider s’il vous plaît ? / Pourriez-vous m’aider s’il vous plaît ? (formal) or Peux-tu m’aider s’il te plaît ? / Pourrais-tu m’aider s’il te plaît (informal) [puve vu mɛːde sɪl vu plɛ] [puve vu mede sil vu plɛ]
Where are the toilets? Où sont les toilettes ? [u sõ le twalɛt] Audio file "où_sont_les_toilettes.ogg" not found
Do you speak English? Parlez-vous (l')anglais ? / Est-ce que vous parlez (l')anglais ? Audio file "Est-ce que vous parlez l'anglais.oga" not found Audio file "parlez-vous_anglaisF.ogg" not found
I do not speak French. Je ne parle pas français. [ʒœ nœ paʁl pɔ fʁãsɛ] [ʒø nø paʁl pa fʁɒ̃sɛ]
I do not know. Je sais pas. (syntax mistake[63] and over-familiar[64])
Je ne sais pas.
Je ne sais. (formal, rare)
<phonos file="Qc-Je sais pas.ogg">[ʒœ se pɔ]</phonos>
[ʒœ n(œ) se pɔ]
[ʒœ n(œ) se]
[ʒø sɛ pa]
[ʒø n(ø) sɛ pa]
[ʒø n(ø) sɛ]
I know. Je sais. [ʒœ se] [ʒø sɛ]
I am thirsty. J’ai soif. (literally, "I have thirst") [ʒe swaf] [ʒe swaf]
I am hungry. J’ai faim. (literally, "I have hunger") [ʒe fẽ] [ʒɛ fæ̃]
How are you? / How are things going? / How is everything? Comment allez-vous ? (formal) or Ça va ? / Comment ça va ? (informal) [kɔmã t‿ale vu] [kɔmɒ̃ t‿ale vu]
I am (very) well / Things are going (very) well // Everything is (very) well Je vais (très) bien (formal) or Ça va (très) bien. / Tout va (très) bien (informal) [ʒœ vɛ (tʁɛ) bjẽ] [ʒø vɛ (tʁɛ) bjæ̃]
I am (very) bad / Things are (very) bad / Everything is (very) bad Je vais (très) mal (formal) or Ça va (très) mal / Tout va (très) mal (informal) [ʒœ vɛ (tʁɛ) mal] [ʒø vɛ (tʁɛ) mal]
I am all right/so-so / Everything is all right/so-so Assez bien or Ça va comme ci, comme ça or simply Ça va.. (Sometimes said: « Couci, couça. », informal: "bof") i.e. « Comme ci, comme ça. ») [ase bjẽ] [ase bjæ̃]
I am fine. Ça va bien. [sa vɔ bjẽ] [sa va bjæ̃]
(How) may I help you? / Do you need help? / We need help! (Comment) puis-je vous aider ? Avez-vous besoin d'aide ? Nous avons besoin d'aide ! [(kɔmã) pɥiʒ vu z‿ɛːde] [(kɔmɑ̃) pɥiʒ vu z‿ede]

See also

Notes and references

  1. 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  2. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  3. 3.0 3.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  4. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  5. 5.0 5.1 5.2 (French) La Francophonie dans le monde 2006–2007 published by the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. Nathan, Paris, 2007.
  6. 6.0 6.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  7. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  8. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  9. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  10. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  11. EUROPA, data for EU25, published before 2007 enlargement.
  12. http://languageknowledge.eu/countries/eu27
  13. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  14. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. – The linguistic situation in Belgium (and in particular various estimations of the population speaking French and Dutch in Brussels) is discussed in detail.
  15. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  16. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  17. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  18. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  19. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  20. (French) Le français à Abidjan : Pour une approche syntaxique du non-standard by Katja Ploog, CNRS Editions, Paris, 2002.
  21. 21.0 21.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  22. (French) "En Afrique, il est impossible de parler d'une forme unique du français mais..."
  23. France-Diplomatie "Furthermore, the demographic growth of Southern hemisphere countries leads us to anticipate a new increase in the overall number of French speakers."
  24. (French) "Le français, langue en évolution. Dans beaucoup de pays francophones, surtout sur le continent africain, une proportion importante de la population ne parle pas couramment le français (même s'il est souvent la langue officielle du pays). Ce qui signifie qu'au fur et à mesure que les nouvelles générations vont à l'école, le nombre de francophones augmente : on estime qu'en 2015, ceux-ci seront deux fois plus nombreux qu'aujourd'hui."
  25. (French) c) Le sabir franco-africain: "C'est la variété du français la plus fluctuante. Le sabir franco-africain est instable et hétérogène sous toutes ses formes. Il existe des énoncés où les mots sont français mais leur ordre reste celui de la langue africaine. En somme, autant les langues africaines sont envahies par les structures et les mots français, autant la langue française se métamorphose en Afrique, donnant naissance à plusieurs variétés."
  26. (French) République centrafricaine: Il existe une autre variété de français, beaucoup plus répandue et plus permissive : le français local. C'est un français très influencé par les langues centrafricaines, surtout par le sango. Cette variété est parlée par les classes non instruites, qui n'ont pu terminer leur scolarité. Ils utilisent ce qu'ils connaissent du français avec des emprunts massifs aux langues locales. Cette variété peut causer des problèmes de compréhension avec les francophones des autres pays, car les interférences linguistiques, d'ordre lexical et sémantique, sont très importantes. (One example of a variety of African French that is difficult to understand for European French speakers).
  27. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  28. Language Use in the United States: 2011, American Community Survey Reports, Camille Ryan, Issued August 2013
  29. U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000 Summary File 3 – Language Spoken at Home: 2000.
  30. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  31. Ministère de l'Éducation nationale
  32. French Declines in Indochina, as English Booms, International Herald Tribune, 16 October 1993: "In both Cambodia and Laos, French remains the official second language of government."
  33. The Role of English in Vietnam's Foreign Language Policy: A Brief History
  34. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  35. [1]
  36. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  37. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  38. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  39. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  40. The World's 10 Most Influential Languages Top Languages. Retrieved 11 April 2011.
  41. The French language today: a linguistic introductionGoogle Books Retrieved 27 June 2011
  42. Meisler, Stanley. "Seduction Still Works : French—a Language in Decline." Los Angeles Times. March 1, 1986. p. 2. Retrieved on May 18, 2013.
  43. French, an international languageFrench Ministry of Foreign Affairs
  44. Want To Know The Language Of The Future? The Data Suggests It Could Be...French, Forbes, March, 21st of 2014
  45. 45.0 45.1 45.2 The World's 10 most influential languages, George Werber, 1997, Language Today, retrieved on scribd.com
  46. http://www.scribd.com/doc/48897416/Top-Languages-The-World-s-10-Most-Influential-Languages-by-George-Weber-1997
  47. Foreign languages 'shortfall' for business, CBI says, Judith Burns, BBC News, 22 June 2014
  48. (French) Fonétik.fr writing system proposal.
  49. (French) Ortofasil writing system proposal.
  50. (French) Alfograf writing system proposal.
  51. (French) Ortograf.net writing system proposal.
  52. http://metro.co.uk/2012/10/01/french-fight-franglais-with-alternatives-for-english-technology-terms-590128/
  53. Walter & Walter 1998.
  54. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  55. 55.0 55.1 Jean-Pierre Martin, Description lexicale du français parlé en Vallée d'Aoste, éd. Musumeci, Quart, 1984.
  56. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.. See also the English Wikipedia article on Welsh language, especially the section "Counting system" and its note on the influence of Celtic in the French counting system.
  57. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  58. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  59. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  60. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. Au-delà de mille, on compte habituellement : ↲ onze, douze, treize, quatorze, quinze, seize cents ↲ plutôt que : ↲ mille cent, mille deux cents, mille trois cents... ↲ mais on emploiera indifféremment : ↲ dix-sept cents ou mille sept cents...
  61. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  62. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  63. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. On négligée trop souvent de faire entendre l’adverbe ne, en faisant de pas l’unique marque de négation : Je veux pas, je sais pas. Cette habitude, répandue dans le langage parlé, est une véritable faute.
  64. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. − Pop. ou très fam. [Avec suppression de ne]

Further reading

  • Nadeau, Jen-Benoît, and Julie Barlow (2006). The Story of French. First U.S. ed. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-34183-0

External links

Organizations

Courses and tutorials

Online dictionaries

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Vocabulary

Numbers

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Books

Articles

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