Preferred number
In industrial design, preferred numbers (also called preferred values or preferred series) are standard guidelines for choosing exact product dimensions within a given set of constraints. Product developers must choose numerous lengths, distances, diameters, volumes, and other characteristic quantities. While all of these choices are constrained by considerations of functionality, usability, compatibility, safety or cost, there usually remains considerable leeway in the exact choice for many dimensions.
Preferred numbers serve two purposes:
- Using them increases the probability of compatibility between objects designed at different times by different people. In other words, it is one tactic among many in standardization, whether within a company or within an industry, and it is usually desirable in industrial contexts (unless the goal is vendor lock-in or planned obsolescence)
- They are chosen such that when a product is manufactured in many different sizes, these will end up roughly equally spaced on a logarithmic scale. They therefore help to minimize the number of different sizes that need to be manufactured or kept in stock.
Contents
Renard numbers
The French army engineer Col. Charles Renard proposed in the 1870s a set of preferred numbers.[1] His system was adopted in 1952 as international standard ISO 3. Renard's system of preferred numbers divides the interval from 1 to 10 into 5, 10, 20, or 40 steps. The factor between two consecutive numbers in a Renard series is approximately constant (before rounding), namely the 5th, 10th, 20th, or 40th root of 10 (approximately 1.58, 1.26, 1.12, and 1.06, respectively), which leads to a geometric sequence. This way, the maximum relative error is minimized if an arbitrary number is replaced by the nearest Renard number multiplied by the appropriate power of 10.
The Renard numbers are not always rounded to the closest three-digit number to the theoretical geometric sequence.
The most basic R5 series consists of these five rounded numbers, which are powers of the fifth root of 10, rounded to two digits:
R5: 1.00 1.60 2.50 4.00 6.30
Example: If our design constraints tell us that the two screws in our gadget should be placed between 32 mm and 55 mm apart, we make it 40 mm, because 4 is in the R5 series of preferred numbers.
Example: If you want to produce a set of nails with lengths between roughly 15 and 300 mm, then the application of the R5 series would lead to a product repertoire of 16 mm, 25 mm, 40 mm, 63 mm, 100 mm, 160 mm, and 250 mm long nails.
If a finer resolution is needed, another five numbers are added to the series, one after each of the original R5 numbers, and we end up with the R10 series. These are rounded to a multiple of 0.05:
R10: 1.00 1.25 1.60 2.00 2.50 3.15 4.00 5.00 6.30 8.00
Where an even finer grading is needed, the R20, R40, and R80 series can be applied. The R20 series is usually rounded to a multiple of 0.05, and the R40 and R80 values interpolate between the R20 values, rather than being powers of the 80th root of 10 rounded correctly:
R20: 1.00 1.25 1.60 2.00 2.50 3.15 4.00 5.00 6.30 8.00
1.12 1.40 1.80 2.24 2.80 3.55 4.50 5.60 7.10 9.00
R40: 1.00 1.25 1.60 2.00 2.50 3.15 4.00 5.00 6.30 8.00
1.06 1.32 1.70 2.12 2.65 3.35 4.25 5.30 6.70 8.50
1.12 1.40 1.80 2.24 2.80 3.55 4.50 5.60 7.10 9.00
1.18 1.50 1.90 2.36 3.00 3.75 4.75 6.00 7.50 9.50
R80: 1.00 1.25 1.60 2.00 2.50 3.15 4.00 5.00 6.30 8.00
1.03 1.28 1.65 2.06 2.58 3.25 4.12 5.15 6.50 8.25
1.06 1.32 1.70 2.12 2.65 3.35 4.25 5.30 6.70 8.50
1.09 1.36 1.75 2.18 2.72 3.45 4.37 5.45 6.90 8.75
1.12 1.40 1.80 2.24 2.80 3.55 4.50 5.60 7.10 9.00
1.15 1.45 1.85 2.30 2.90 3.65 4.62 5.80 7.30 9.25
1.18 1.50 1.90 2.36 3.00 3.75 4.75 6.00 7.50 9.50
1.22 1.55 1.95 2.43 3.07 3.87 4.87 6.15 7.75 9.75
In some applications more rounded values are desirable, either because the numbers from the normal series would imply an unrealistically high accuracy, or because an integer value is needed (e.g., the number of teeth in a gear). For these needs, more rounded versions of the Renard series have been defined in ISO 3:
R5″: 1 1.5 2.5 4 6
R10′: 1 1.25 1.6 2 2.5 3.2 4 5 6.3 8 R10″: 1 1.2 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 8
R20′: 1 1.25 1.6 2 2.5 3.2 4 5 6.3 8
1.1 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.8 3.6 4.5 5.6 7.1 9
R20″: 1 1.2 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 8
1.1 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.8 3.5 4.5 5.5 7 9
R40′: 1 1.25 1.6 2 2.5 3.2 4 5 6.3 8
1.05 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.6 3.4 4.2 5.3 6.7 8.5
1.1 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.8 3.6 4.5 5.6 7.1 9
1.2 1.5 1.9 2.4 3 3.8 4.8 6 7.5 9.5
As the Renard numbers repeat after every 10-fold change of the scale, they are particularly well-suited for use with SI units. It makes no difference whether the Renard numbers are used with metres or millimetres. But one would end up with two incompatible sets of nicely spaced dimensions if they were applied, for instance, with both inches and feet.
Rail gauges
Only two rail gauges are preferred numbers, and these are likely accidental, but are remarkable in that they are in the R10 series whether expressed in inches or millimetres.
The more common gauge is the 1600 mm (63 in) Irish gauge, both numbers in the R10 series. It is also used in Australia and Brazil. The other gauge is just half this, 800 mm (31.5 in), and is used by many mountain railways in Switzerland. The ratio of 1600 to 63 (about 25.397) is very close to the number of millimetres per inch (25.4).
1-2-5 series
In applications for which the R5 series provides a too fine graduation, the 1-2-5 series is sometimes used as a cruder alternative. It is effectively an R3 series rounded to one significant digit:
- ... 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1000 ...
This series covers a decade (1:10 ratio) in three steps. Adjacent values differ by factors 2 or 2.5. Unlike the Renard series, the 1-2-5 series has not been formally adopted as an international standard. However, the Renard series R10 can be used to extend the 1-2-5 series to a finer graduation.
This series is used to define the scales for graphs and for instruments that display in a two-dimensional form with a graticule, such as oscilloscopes.
The denominations of most modern currencies follow a 1-2-5 series. The United States and Canada follow the series 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 (cents), and also $5 and $10 which belong to the same series. However, after that comes $20, not $25. The ¼-½-1 series (... 0.1 0.25 0.5 1 2.5 5 10 ...) is also used by currencies derived from the former Dutch gulden (Aruban florin, Netherlands Antillean gulden, Surinamese dollar), some Middle Eastern currencies (Iraqi and Jordanian dinars, Lebanese pound, Syrian pound), and the Seychellois rupee. However, newer notes introduced in Lebanon and Syria due to inflation follow the standard 1-2-5 series instead.
Electronics
E series
In electronics, international standard IEC 60063 defines another preferred number series for resistors, capacitors, inductors and Zener diodes. It works similarly to the Renard series, except that it subdivides the interval from 1 to 10 into 6, 12, 24, etc. steps. These subdivisions ensure that when some arbitrary value is replaced with the nearest preferred number, the maximum relative error will be on the order of 20%, 10%, 5%, etc.
Use of the E series is mostly restricted to resistors, capacitors, inductors and Zener diodes. Commonly produced dimensions for other types of electrical components are either chosen from the Renard series instead (for example fuses) or are defined in relevant product standards (for example wires).
The IEC 60063 numbers are as follows. The E6 series is every other element of the E12 series, which is in turn every other element of the E24 series:
E6 ( 20%): 10 15 22 33 47 68
E12 ( 10%): 10 12 15 18 22 27 33 39 47 56 68 82
E24 ( 5%): 10 12 15 18 22 27 33 39 47 56 68 82
11 13 16 20 24 30 36 43 51 62 75 91
With the E48 series, a third decimal place is added, and the values are slightly adjusted. Again, the E48 series is every other value of the E96 series, which is every other value of the E192 series:
E48 ( 2%): 100 121 147 178 215 261 316 383 464 562 681 825
105 127 154 187 226 274 332 402 487 590 715 866
110 133 162 196 237 287 348 422 511 619 750 909
115 140 169 205 249 301 365 442 536 649 787 953
E96 ( 1%): 100 121 147 178 215 261 316 383 464 562 681 825
102 124 150 182 221 267 324 392 475 576 698 845
105 127 154 187 226 274 332 402 487 590 715 866
107 130 158 191 232 280 340 412 499 604 732 887
110 133 162 196 237 287 348 422 511 619 750 909
113 137 165 200 243 294 357 432 523 634 768 931
115 140 169 205 249 301 365 442 536 649 787 953
118 143 174 210 255 309 374 453 549 665 806 976
E192 (0.5%) 100 121 147 178 215 261 316 383 464 562 681 825
101 123 149 180 218 264 320 388 470 569 690 835
102 124 150 182 221 267 324 392 475 576 698 845
104 126 152 184 223 271 328 397 481 583 706 856
105 127 154 187 226 274 332 402 487 590 715 866
106 129 156 189 229 277 336 407 493 597 723 876
107 130 158 191 232 280 340 412 499 604 732 887
109 132 160 193 234 284 344 417 505 612 741 898
110 133 162 196 237 287 348 422 511 619 750 909
111 135 164 198 240 291 352 427 517 626 759 920
113 137 165 200 243 294 357 432 523 634 768 931
114 138 167 203 246 298 361 437 530 642 777 942
115 140 169 205 249 301 365 442 536 649 787 953
117 142 172 208 252 305 370 448 542 657 796 965
118 143 174 210 255 309 374 453 549 665 806 976
120 145 176 213 258 312 379 459 556 673 816 988
The E192 series is also used for 0.25% and 0.1% tolerance resistors.
1% resistors are available in both the E24 values and the E96 values.
Semiconductor devices
Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
<templatestyles src="Module:Hatnote/styles.css"></templatestyles>
Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
Moore's law states that semiconductor devices double in areal density every 2 years; preferred numbers in semiconductor device fabrication were traditionally chosen so that each step corresponded to such a doubling. Since the late 2000s, manufacturing companies' progress has become more uneven, and their processes have been diverging (e.g. the competition between multigate device and silicon on insulator technology), so "half-nodes" have become more common.
Buildings
In the construction industry, it was felt that typical dimensions must be easy to use in mental arithmetic. Therefore, rather than using elements of a geometric series, a different system of preferred dimensions has evolved in this area, known as "modular coordination".
Major dimensions (e.g., grid lines on drawings, distances between wall centres or surfaces, widths of shelves and kitchen components) are multiples of 100 mm, i.e. one decimetre. This size is called the "basic module" (and represented in the standards by the letter M). Preference is given to the multiples of 300 mm (3 M) and 600 mm (6 M) of the basic module (see also "metric foot"). For larger dimensions, preference is given to multiples of the modules 12 M (= 1.2 m), 15 M (= 1.5 m), 30 M (= 3 m), and 60 M (= 6 m). For smaller dimensions, the submodular increments 50 mm or 25 mm are used. (ISO 2848, BS 6750)
Dimensions chosen this way can easily be divided by a large number of factors without ending up with millimetre fractions. For example, a multiple of 600 mm (6 M) can always be divided into 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 20, 24, 25, 30, etc. parts, each of which is again an integer number of millimetres.
Paper documents, envelopes, and drawing pens
<templatestyles src="Module:Hatnote/styles.css"></templatestyles>
Standard metric paper sizes use the square root of two and related numbers (√√√2, √√2, √2, 2, or 2√2) as factors between neighbour dimensions (Lichtenberg series, ISO 216). An A4 sheet for example has an aspect ratio very close to √2 and an area very close to 1/16 square metre. A5 is like half an A4, and has the same aspect ratio. The √2 factor also appears between the standard pen thicknesses for technical drawings (0.13, 0.18, 0.25, 0.35, 0.50, 0.70, 1.00, 1.40, and 2.00 mm). This way, the right pen size is available to continue a drawing that has been magnified to a different standard paper size.
Computer engineering
When dimensioning computer components, the powers of two are frequently used as preferred numbers:
1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1024 ...
Where a finer grading is needed, additional preferred numbers are obtained by multiplying a power of two with a small odd integer:
1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1024 ...
(×3) 3 6 12 24 48 96 192 384 768 ...
(×5) 5 10 20 40 80 160 320 640 1280 ...
(×7) 7 14 28 56 112 224 448 896 ...
| 16: | 15: | 12: | |
|---|---|---|---|
| :8 | 2:1 | 3:2 | |
| :9 | 16:9 | 5:3 | 4:3 |
| :10 | 8:5 | 3:2 | |
| :12 | 4:3 | 5:4 | 1:1 |
In computer graphics, widths and heights of raster images are preferred to be multiples of 16, as many compression algorithms (JPEG, MPEG) divide color images into square blocks of that size. Black-and-white JPEG images are divided into 8x8 blocks. Screen resolutions often follow the same principle. Preferred aspect ratios have also an important influence here, e.g., 2:1, 3:2, 4:3, 5:3, 5:4, 8:5, 16:9.
Retail packaging
In some countries, consumer-protection laws restrict the number of different prepackaged sizes in which certain products can be sold, in order to make it easier for consumers to compare prices.
An example of such a regulation is the European Union directive on the volume of certain prepackaged liquids (75/106/EEC [1]). It restricts the list of allowed wine-bottle sizes to 0.1, 0.25 (1/4), 0.375 (3/8), 0.5 (1/2), 0.75 (3/4), 1, 1.5, 2, 3, and 5 litres. Similar lists exist for several other types of products. They vary and often deviate significantly from any geometric series in order to accommodate traditional sizes when feasible. Adjacent package sizes in these lists differ typically by factors 2/3 or 3/4, in some cases even 1/2, 4/5, or some other ratio of two small integers.
Music
<templatestyles src="Module:Hatnote/styles.css"></templatestyles>
While some instruments (trombone, theremin, etc.) can play a tone at any arbitrary frequency, other instruments (such as pianos) can only play a limited set of tones. The very popular "twelve-tone equal temperament" selects tones from the geometric sequence
where k is typically 440 Hz, though other standards have been used. However, other less common tuning systems have also been historically important as preferred audio frequencies.
Since 210≈103, 21/12≈103/120=101/40, and the resultant frequency spacing is very similar to the R40 series.
Photography
In photography, aperture, exposure, and film speed generally follow powers of 2:
The aperture size controls how much light enters the camera. It's measured in f-stops: f/1.4, f/2, f/2.8, f/4, etc. Full f-stops are a square root of 2 apart. Digital cameras often subdivide these into thirds, so each f-stop is a sixth root of 2, rounded to two significant digits: 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.2, 2.5, 2.8, 3.2, 3.5, 4.0.
The film speed is a measure of the film’s sensitivity to light. It's expressed as ISO values such as “ISO 100”. Measured film speeds are rounded to the nearest preferred number from a modified Renard series including 100, 125, 160, 200, 250, 320, 400, 500, 640, 800... This is the same as the R10′ rounded Renard series, except for the use of 6.4 instead of 6.3, and for having more aggressive rounding below ISO 16. Film marketed to amateurs, however, uses a restricted series including only powers of two multiples of ISO 100: 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600 and 3200. Some low-end cameras can only reliably read these values from DX encoded film cartridges because they lack the extra electrical contacts that would be needed to read the complete series. Some digital cameras extend this binary series to values like 12800, 25600, etc. instead of the modified Renard values 12500, 25000, etc.
The shutter speed controls how long the camera records light. These are expressed as fractions of a second, roughly but not exactly based on powers of 2: 1 second, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/15, 1/30, 1/60, 1/125, 1/250, 1/500, 1/1000 of a second.
See also
References
- ↑ "preferred numbers", sizes.com
Further reading
- ISO 3: "Preferred numbers. Series of preferred numbers." (1973)
- IEC 60063: "Preferred number series for resistors and capacitors." (2015)
