List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field

From Infogalactic: the planetary knowledge core
Jump to: navigation, search

<templatestyles src="Module:Hatnote/styles.css"></templatestyles>

See also: List of people considered father or mother of a field

The following is a list of people who are considered a "father" or "mother" (or "founding father" or "founding mother") of a scientific field. Such people are generally regarded to have made the first significant contributions to and/or delineation of that field; they may also be seen as "a" rather than "the" father or mother of the field. Debate over who merits the title can be perennial.

Science as a whole

Field Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Science (modern) Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)[1]
[2][3]		 For systemic use of experimentation in science and contributions to scientific method, physics and observational astronomy
Science (ancient) Thales (c. 624/623 – c. 548/545 BC)[4][5] Attempted to explain natural phenomena without recourse to mythology

Natural sciences

Biology

Field Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Bacteriology Robert Koch (1843–1910)
Ferdinand Cohn (1828–1898)[6]
Louis Pasteur (1822–1895)		 First to produce precise, correct descriptions of bacteria.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723)[7]
Biogeography Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913) "... Often described as the Father of Biogeography, Wallace shows the impact of human activity on the natural world."[8]
Bioinformatics Margaret Oakley Dayhoff (1925–1983) "... the mother and father of bioinformatics", according to David J. Lipman, former director of the National Center for Biotechnology Information.[9]
Biology[Note 1] Aristotle (384–322 BC)
Botany Theophrastus (c. 371 – c. 287 BC)
Bryology Johann Hedwig (1730–1799)
Cheloniology Archie Carr (1909–1987) [10][11][12][13][14]
Ecology Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778)
Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919)
Eugenius Warming (1841–1924)[15]		 Linnaeus founded an early branch of ecology that he called The Economy of Nature (1772), Haeckel coined the term "ecology" (German: Oekologie, Ökologie) (1866), Warming authored the first book on plant ecology. Plantesamfund (1895).
Modern elk management Olaus Murie (1889–1963)[16]
Entomology Jan Swammerdam (1637–1680) [17]
Johan Christian Fabricius (1745–1808)[18] Fabricius described and published information on over 10,000 insects and refined Linnaeus's system of classification.
William Kirby (1759–1850) [19]
Ethology Nikolaas Tinbergen (1907–1988)
Karl von Frisch (1886–1982)
Konrad Lorenz (1903–1989)		 The modern discipline of ethology is generally considered to have begun during the 1930s with the work of Nikolaas Tinbergen, Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch, joint awardees of the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.[20]
Charles Darwin (1809–1882)[21][22][23] On the Origin of Species (1859).
Genetics Gregor Mendel (1822–1884) For his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants, which forms the basis for Mendelian inheritance[24] (published 1865–1866).
William Bateson (1861–1926) Proponent of Mendelism.[25]
Gerontology Élie Metchnikoff (1845–1916) Coined the term "gerontology" (1903). He was the first to perform systematic research on the effects of certain foods on lifespan and healthspan, developed the concept of probiotic diet that promotes long healthy life.[26][27][28][29][30][31][32]
Herpetology John Edwards Holbrook (1796–1871) "John Edwards Holbrook... was considered by many to be the Father of Herpetology."[33][34]
Ichthyology Peter Artedi (1705–1735) "Far greater than either of these... was he who has been justly called the Father of Ichthyology, Petrus (Peter) Artedi (1705–1735)."[35]
Immunology Edward Jenner (1749–1823) Pioneered the concept of vaccines including creating the smallpox vaccine, the world's first vaccine (in 1796).[36][37][38][39]
Innate (natural) immunity Élie Metchnikoff (1845–1916) Research of phagocytosis by macrophages and microphages as a critical host-defense mechanism.[40][41][42][43][44][45][46]
Humoral immunity Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915) Described the side-chain theory of antibody formation and the mechanisms of how antibodies neutralize toxins and induce bacterial lysis with the help of complement.[40]
Lichenology Erik Acharius (1757–1819) "Erik Acharius, the father of lichenology..."[47]
Microbiology Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) / Louis Pasteur (1822–1895)[48] The first to microscopically observe micro-organisms in water and the first to see bacteria.
Molecular biology Linus Pauling (1901–1994) [49]
Molecular biophysics Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran (1922–2001)[50] Founded the [world's first?] molecular biophysics unit (1970).
Paleontology Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)
George Cuvier (1769–1832)		 [51]
Parasitology Francesco Redi (1626–1697) The founder of experimental biology and the first person to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies.[52]
Protozoology Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723)[7] First to produce precise, correct descriptions of protozoa.
Taxonomy Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778)[53] Devised the system of naming living organisms that became universally accepted in the scientific world.
Virology Martinus Beijerinck (1851-1931)[54] Studies of agricultural microbiology and industrial microbiology that yielded fundamental discoveries.
Zoology Aristotle (384–322 BC) His contributions to the field include vast quantities of information about the variety, structure, and behavior of animals

Chemistry

Field Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Atomic theory (early) Democritus (c. 460 – c. 370 BC)[55] Founder of atomism in cosmology.
Atomic theory (modern) Father Roger Boscovich (1711–1787)[56] First coherent description of atomic theory.
John Dalton (1766–1844)[57] First scientific description of the atom as a building block for more complex structures.
Chemical thermodynamics (modern) Gilbert Lewis (1875–1946)
Willard Gibbs (1839–1903)
Merle Randall (1888–1950)
Edward Guggenheim (1901–1970)[58]		 Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances (1923) and Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of Willard Gibbs (1933), which made a major contribution to the use of thermodynamics in chemistry.
Chemistry (modern) Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794)[59] Elements of Chemistry (1787)
Robert Boyle (1627–1691)[59] The Sceptical Chymist (1661)
Jöns Berzelius (1779–1848)[60][61] Development of chemical nomenclature (1800s)
John Dalton (1766–1844)[59] Revival of atomic theory (1803)
Green chemistry Paul Anastas (born 1962)[62] Design and manufacture of chemicals that are non-hazardous and environmentally benign.
Nuclear chemistry Otto Hahn (1879–1968)[63]
Periodic table Dmitri Mendeleev (1834–1907)[64] Arranged the sixty-six elements known at the time in order of atomic weight by periodic intervals (1869).
Physical chemistry Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) The first to read lectures in physical chemistry and coin the term (1752).
Jacobus van 't Hoff (1852–1911) Jacobus van 't Hoff is considered one of the founders of the discipline of physical chemistry. His work helped found the discipline as it is today.[65][66][67]
Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927)[68] Devised much of the theoretical foundation for physical chemistry. On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances (1876), Thermodynamik chemischer Vorgange (1882).
Wilhelm Ostwald (1853–1932) "Wilhelm Ostwald is considered one of the founders of the discipline of physical chemistry..."[69]
Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) <templatestyles src="Noitalic/styles.css"/>[citation needed]

Earth sciences

Field Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Geochemistry (modern) Victor Goldschmidt (1888–1947) For developing the Goldschmidt classification of elements.
Early geodesy (mathematical geography) Eratosthenes (c. 276 – 195/194 BC)[70][71] Eratosthenes was first to write the word Geography (from Geo- and -graphy, literally "writing about the Earth")
Geodesy (modern) Al-Biruni (973 – c. 1050)[72][73]
Geology (modern)
Geotechnical engineering (Soil mechanics) Karl von Terzaghi (1883–1963)[76]
Limnology (modern) G. Evelyn Hutchinson (1903–1991) [77]
Mineralogy Georgius Agricola (1494–1555) [78]
Matthew Fontaine Maury (1806–1873) [79]
Plate tectonics Alfred Wegener (1880–1930) <templatestyles src="Noitalic/styles.css"/>[citation needed]
Acoustical oceanography Leonid Brekhovskikh (1917–2005) [80]
Stratigraphy Nicolas Steno (1638–1686) [74]
Speleology Édouard-Alfred Martel (1859–1938) Began the first systematic exploration of cave systems and promoted speleology as a field separate from geology.

Medicine and physiology

Field Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Anatomy (modern) Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694)
Biophysics Henri Dutrochet (1776–1847) Discovered osmosis
Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) Explained hearing and vision.
Biomechanics Christian Wilhelm Braune (1831–1892) First to describe the methodology of human gait (walking).
Bioelectromagnetics Luigi Galvani (1737–1798) First to discover animal electricity through a series of experiments in 1780.
Cardiovascular physiology Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288) Father of circulatory and cardiovascular physiology".[81][82][83]
Cognitive therapy Aaron T. Beck (1921-2021)
  • "In developing ways to do this, Beck became the father of cognitive therapy, one of the most important developments in psychotherapy in the last 50 years."[84]
  • The Prospect of Immortality (1962)
Cryonics Robert Ettinger (1918–2011) 1962 book, The Prospect of Immortality[85]
Dentistry Pierre Fauchard (1679–1761) Widely known for writing the first complete scientific description of dentistry, Le Chirurgien Dentiste.
Electrophysiology Emil du Bois-Reymond (1818–1896) The discoverer of nerve action potential.
Emergency medicine
Epidemiology (modern) John Snow (1813–1858) Determining the cause of the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak with a combination of public interviews and mapping
Gastrointestinal physiology William Beaumont[89] (1785–1853)
Gynaecology J. Marion Sims (1813–1883) [90][91]
Histology Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694)
Human anatomy (modern) Vesalius (1514–1564)[92] De humani corporis fabrica (1543)
Medical genetics Victor McKusick (1921–2008)[93] Mendelian Inheritance in Man (started publishing in 1966)
Medicine (early)
  • Historical legends following his death, with little evidence.
  • Wrote the Charaka Samhitā and founded the Ayurveda system of medicine.
  • Prescribed professional practices for physicians through the Hippocratic Oath.
Medicine (modern)
Neurosurgery Harvey Cushing[98] (1869–1939) Developed techniques that considerably reduced the risks involved with brain surgery in the early 20th century.[98]
Nutrition (modern)
  • "Justus Von Liebig, the 'father of modern nutrition', developed the perfect infant food. It consisted of [...]"[99]
  • "In addition to being known as the Father of Modern Chemistry, Lavoisier is also considered the Father of Modern Nutrition, as the first to discover the metabolism that occurs inside the human body..."[100]
Organ transplantation Thomas Starzl[101] (1926–2017) Performed the first human liver transplant and established the clinical utility of anti-rejection drugs including ciclosporin. Developed major advances in organ preservation, procurement and transplantation.
Orthopedic surgery (modern) Hugh Owen Thomas[102] (1834–1891) He stressed the importance of rest in treatment and was responsible for many landmark contributions to orthopaedic surgery. He was especially celebrated for his design and use of splints; the famous Thomas knee splint was still in wide use at the end of World War II.
Psychology (experimental) Wilhelm Wundt[103](1832–1920) Founded the first laboratory for psychological research.
Pediatrics Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi ("Rhazes")[104] (c. 865 – 925 CE) Wrote The Diseases of Children, the first book to deal with pediatrics as an independent field.
Physiology François Magendie (1783–1855) Précis élementaire de Physiologie (1816)
Physical culture Bernarr Macfadden (1868–1955) "It delighted the heart of our old friend Bernarr Macfadden, 'the Father of Physical Culture,' when we told him how much athletic activity and good sportsmanship had to do with the rehabilitation of boys."[105]
Plastic surgery
Wrote the Sushruta Samhita (ancient)
Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) [108]
Psychophysics
Elements of Psychophysics (1860)
Space medicine Hubertus Strughold (1898–1986) "After Wernher von Braun, he was the top Nazi scientist employed by the American government, and he was subsequently hailed by NASA as the 'father of space medicine'"[110]
Surgery (early) Sushruta[106][107] (sixth century?) Wrote the Sushruta Samhita (878 CE?)
Surgery (modern)
Toxicology Paracelsus (1493/1494 – 1541) [119]

Physics and astronomy

Field Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Acoustics Ernst Chladni[120] For important research in vibrating plates
Atomic bomb Enrico Fermi
J. Robert Oppenheimer
Leslie Groves
Edward Teller		 For their role in the Manhattan Project
Aerodynamics Nikolai Zhukovsky
George Cayley[121]
 Zhukovsky was the first to undertake the study of airflow, was the first engineer scientist to explain mathematically the origin of aerodynamic lift. Cayley Investigated theoretical aspects of flight and experimented with flight a century before the first airplane was built
Civil engineering John Smeaton[122]
Classical mechanics Isaac Newton (founder)[123] Described laws of motion and law of gravity in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)
Electrical Engineering Michael Faraday[124][125] Invented the generator, the first DC electric motor, the transformer, and also discovered Faraday's Law of Induction (1831)
Pre-Maxwell Electrodynamics André-Marie Ampère[126] Book: Memoir on the Mathematical Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena, Uniquely Deduced from Experience (1827)
Energetics Willard Gibbs[127] Publication: On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances (1876)
Experimental physics (founder) Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[128][129] For introducing experimental method into physics with his Book of Optics (1021)
Meteoritics Ernst Chladni[130] First to publish in modern Western thought (in 1794) the then audacious idea that meteorites are rocks from space.[131]
Modern astronomy Nicolaus Copernicus[132] Developed the first explicit heliocentric model in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543)
Nuclear physics Ernest Rutherford[133] Developed the Rutherford atom model (1909)
Nuclear science Marie Curie
Pierre Curie[134]
Optics Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[135] Correctly explained vision and carried out the first experiments on light and optics in the Book of Optics (1021).
Physics (early) Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[136]
Francis Bacon[137]		 Alhazen developed rigorous experimental methods of controlled scientific testing to verify theoretical hypotheses and substantiate inductive conjectures.

Developed Baconian method in his Novum Organum (1620).
Physical cosmology Georges Lemaître (founder)

Albert Einstein
Henrietta Leavitt (mother)[138]
Edwin Hubble (father)[138]

 Monsignor Lemaître is considered "the Father of the Big Bang" and the first to derive what is now known as Hubble's law. Leavitt discovered Cepheid variables, the "Standard Candle" by which Hubble later determined galactic distances. Einstein's general theory of relativity is usually recognized as the theoretic foundation of modern cosmology.
Physics (modern) Galileo Galilei[139] His development and extensive use of experimental physics, e.g. the telescope
Plasma physics Irving Langmuir
Hannes Alfvén[140]		 Langmuir first described ionised gas as plasma and observed fundamental plasma vibrations, Langmuir waves.
Alfvén pioneered the theoretical description of plasma by developing magnetohydrodynamics.
Quantum mechanics Max Planck[141] Stated that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only in quantized form
Relativity Albert Einstein (founder)[142] Pioneered special relativity (1905) and general relativity (1915)
Spaceflight (rocketry) Robert Hutchings Goddard
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
Hermann Oberth		 Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket.
Tsiolkovsky created the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation.
Thermodynamics Sadi Carnot (founder)[143] Publication: On the Motive Power of Fire and Machines Fitted to Develop that Power (1824)

Formal sciences

Mathematics

Field Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Algebra
(see also The father of algebra)		 Muhammad Al-Khwarizmi (Algorismi)[144]
Diophantus[145][146]		 Full exposition of solving quadratic equations in his Al-Jabr and recognized algebra as an independent discipline.
First use of symbolism (syncopation) in his Arithmetica.
Algebraic topology Henri Poincaré[147] Published Analysis Situs in 1895,[148] introducing the concepts of homotopy and homology, which are now considered part of algebraic topology.
Analysis Augustin-Louis Cauchy[149]
Karl Weierstrass[150]
Analytic geometry René Descartes
Pierre de Fermat[151] (founders)		 For their independent invention of the Cartesian Coordinate System
Calculus Isaac Newton[152]
Gottfried Leibniz		 See Leibniz and Newton calculus controversy.
Classical analysis Madhava of Sangamagrama[153] Developed Taylor series expansions of trigonometric functions
Computer science Charles Babbage
Alan Turing		 In the history of computer science Babbage is often regarded as one of the first pioneers of computing and Turing invented the principle of the modern computer and the stored program concept that almost all modern day computers use.
Computer programming Ada Lovelace Work on Charles Babbage's proposed mechanical general-purpose computer, the Analytical Engine
Cryptanalysis Al-Kindi[154][155][156] Developed the first code breaking algorithm based on frequency analysis. He wrote a book entitled "Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages", containing detailed discussions on statistics.
Descriptive geometry Gaspard Monge[157]
(founder)		 Developed a graphical protocol that creates three-dimensional virtual space on a two-dimensional plane
Fractal geometry Benoit Mandelbrot
Geometry Euclid[158] Euclid's Elements deduced the principles of Euclidean geometry from a set of axioms.
Graph theory Leonhard Euler[159] See Seven Bridges of Königsberg
Italian school of algebraic geometry Corrado Segre[160] Publications and students developing algebraic geometry
Modern algebra Emmy Noether[161]
Emil Artin		 Provided the first general definitions of a commutative ring, and suggested that topology be studied algebraically.[162] Combined the structure theory of associative algebras and the representation theory of groups into a single arithmetic theory of modules and ideals in rings satisfying ascending chain conditions.[163]
Non-Euclidean geometry János Bolyai,
Nikolai Lobachevsky[164](founders)		 Independent development of hyperbolic geometry in which Euclid's fifth postulate is not true
Number theory Pythagoras[165]
Probability Gerolamo Cardano
Pierre de Fermat
Blaise Pascal
Christiaan Huygens[166] (founders)		 Fermat and Pascal co-founded probability theory, about which Huygens wrote the first book
Projective geometry Girard Desargues[167](founder) By generalizing the use of vanishing points to include the case when these are infinitely far away
Set theory Georg Cantor
Tensor calculus Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro[168]
(founder)		 Book: The Absolute Differential Calculus
Trigonometry Hipparchus[169][170] Constructed the first trigonometric table.
Vector algebra,
vector calculus		 Willard Gibbs[171]
Oliver Heaviside[172]
(founders)		 For their development and use of vectors in algebra and calculus

Systems theory

Field Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Chaos theory Henri Poincaré[173]
Mary Cartwright[174][175]
Edward Lorenz[176]		 Poincaré's work on the three-body problem was the first discovered example of a chaotic dynamical system. Cartwright made the first mathematical analysis of dynamical systems with chaos. Lorenz introduced strange attractor notation.
Cybernetics Norbert Wiener[177] Book Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. 1948.
Dynamic programming Richard E. Bellman
Fuzzy logic Lotfi Asker Zadeh
Information theory Claude Shannon[178] Article: A Mathematical Theory of Communication (1948)
Optimal control Arthur E. Bryson[179] Book: Applied Optimal Control[180]
Robust control George Zames[citation needed] Small gain theorem and H infinity control.
Stability theory Alexander Lyapunov[citation needed] Lyapunov function
System dynamics Jay Wright Forrester[181] Book: Industrial dynamics (1961)

Social sciences

Field Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Anthropology Herodotus[182]
Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī[183][184]
Bibliometrics Paul Otlet The term bibliométrie was first used by Paul Otlet in 1934[185] and defined as "the measurement of all aspects related to the publication and reading of books and documents."[186]
Demography Ibn Khaldun[187] Muqaddimah (Prolegomena) (1377)
Egyptology Father Athanasius Kircher[188]

Jean-François Champollion[citation needed]

 First to identify the phonetic importance of the hieroglyph, and he demonstrated Coptic as a vestige of early Egyptian, before the Rosetta stone's discovery.
Translated parts of the Rosetta Stone.
Historiography Thucydides Thucydides has been dubbed the father of "scientific history" by those who accept his claims to have applied strict standards of impartiality and evidence-gathering and analysis of cause and effect, without reference to intervention by the deities, as outlined in his introduction to his work.
History Herodotus (who also coined the term)
Indology Al-Biruni[184][189] Wrote the Indica[190]
International law Alberico Gentili
Francisco de Vitoria
Hugo Grotius		 Influential contributions to the theory of international law, war and human rights
Linguistics (early) Panini Wrote the first descriptive grammar (of Sanskrit)
Linguistics (modern) Ferdinand de Saussure

Noam Chomsky
Political science Aristotle
Niccolò Machiavelli*
Thomas Hobbes**		 Aristotle is called the father of political science largely because of his work entitled Politics. This treatise is divided into eight books, and deals with subjects such as citizenship, democracy, oligarchy and the ideal state.[191]

*Machiavelli is considered the 'modern father of political science'[192]

**Hobbes is considered the Father of Modern Political Philosophy for his postulation of the State of Nature in Leviathan.
Sociology Ibn Khaldun[187][193]
Adam Ferguson[194]
Auguste Comte (who also coined the term)[195]
Marquis de Condorcet (founder)[196]		 Wrote the first sociological book, the Muqaddimah (Prolegomena).
"Father of modern sociology"
Introduced the scientific method into sociology.

Economics

Field Person(s)
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Accounting and bookkeeping Luca Pacioli (c. 1447–1517)[197] Establisher of accounting and the first person to publish a work on bookkeeping.[197]
Economics (early) Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406)[198]
Chanakya / Kautilya (375 BCE – 283 BCE)[199]		 Publication: Muqaddimah (1370)
Publication: Arthashastra (400 BCE – 200 CE)
Economics (modern)
Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen (1906–1994)[204][205][206][207][208] The Entropy Law and the Economic Process (1971)
Macroeconomics John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946)[209] Author of The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money and groundbreaking economist, Keynes spearheaded a revolution in economic thinking. Prior to Keynes, the general consensus among economists was that the economy was self-fixing. During the Great Depression, when people began to realize that the economy would not fix itself, Keynes proposed that the government needed to intervene to combat excessive boom and bust. This idea was the largest influence in U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal.[210][211]
Mathematical economics Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782) Forerunner of the Tableau économique.[212]
Monetary economics
  • Oresme's De Moneta.
  • "Irving Fisher [...] spent his career studying questions about money and the economy - how money affects interest rates, how money affects inflation, and the impact of money on overall economic activity. For this work, he is regarded as the father of monetary economics."[214]
  • "[...] no less an authority than the University of Chicago's Milton Friedman, the father of monetary economics, [...]"[215]
Microcredit Muhammad Yunus (born 1940)[216] Founded Grameen Bank
Personnel economics Edward Lazear (1948–2020) Published the first paper in the field.
Family and consumer science Ellen Swallow Richards (1842–1911) Founded the American Association of Home Economics, currently the American Association of Family & Consumer Sciences. "Bringing science into the home, Richards hoped to "...attain the best physical, mental, and moral development" for the family, which she believed was the basic unit of civilization."[217]

Schools of thought

Field Person(s)
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Austrian School Carl Menger (1840–1921)[218]
School of Salamanca Francisco de Vitoria (c. 1483–1546)[219] Highly influential teacher and lecturer on commercial morality

Theories

Field Person(s)
considered "father" or "mother"		 Rationale
Expectations theory Thomas Cardinal Cajetan (1469–1534)[220] Recognised the effect of market expectations on the value of money
Modern portfolio theory Harry Markowitz (born 1927)[221]
Social choice theory Kenneth Arrow (1921–2017) Created the field with his 1951 book Social Choice and Individual Values.
Game theory

See also

Notes

References

  1. ↑ Pamela Gossin, Encyclopedia of Literature and Science, 2002.
  2. ↑ Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (Fall 2007), "Book Review—The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History", The Historian 69 (3): 601–602
  3. ↑ Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. Universe, p. 155.
  4. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  5. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  6. ↑ Drews G. (1999). "Ferdinand Cohn, a Founder of Modern Microbiology". ASM News 65 (8).
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 p. 18, Foundations in microbiology: basic principles, Kathleen Park Talaro, 6th ed., international ed., McGraw-Hill, 2007, ISBN 978-0-07-126232-3.
  8. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  9. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  10. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  11. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  12. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  13. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  14. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  15. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  16. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  17. ↑ p. 208, A history of social thought, Paul Hanly Furfey, The Macmillan company, 1942.
  18. ↑ p. 162, Museum: the Macleays, their collections and the search for order, Robyn Stacey, Ashley Hay, Cambridge University Press, 2007, ISBN 0-521-87453-X.
  19. ↑ p. 118, The fossil hunter: dinosaurs, evolution, and the woman whose discoveries changed the world, Shelley Emling, Macmillan, 2009, ISBN 0-230-61156-7.
  20. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  21. ↑ Darwin, Charles (1842, published 1909), "Pencil Sketch of 1842", in Darwin, Francis, The foundations of The origin of species: Two essays written in 1842 and 1844., Cambridge University Press, <http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=1> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
  22. ↑ Moore, James (2006), "Evolution and Wonder - Understanding Charles Darwin", Speaking of Faith (Radio Program), American Public Media, <Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
  23. ↑ van Wyhe, John (2006), Charles Darwin: gentleman naturalist: A biographical sketch, <http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
  24. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  25. ↑ p. 91, Theory change in science: strategies from Mendelian genetics, Lindley Darden, Oxford University Press US, 1991, ISBN 0-19-506797-5.
  26. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  27. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  28. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  29. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  30. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  31. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  32. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  33. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  34. ↑ Worthington, R. D.; Worthington, P. H. (1976). "John Edwards Holbrook, father of American herpetology". pp. xiii–xxvii. '''''In'':''' Holbrook J. E. ''North American Herpetology'' ... [second edition, 1842], reprint edition. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, Facsimile Reprints in Herpetology series.
  35. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found., online at Google Books, p. 390.
  36. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  37. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  38. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  39. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  41. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  42. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  43. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  44. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  45. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  46. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  47. ↑ Department of Cryptogamic Botany at the Swedish Museum of Natural History (1999-12-17).
  48. ↑ Madigan M., Martinko J. (editors) (2006). Brock Biology of Microorganisms, 11th ed., Prentice Hall.
  49. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  50. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  51. ↑ p. 287, On social structure and science (volume 1996 of Heritage of sociology), Robert King Merton and Piotr Sztompka, University of Chicago Press, 1996, ISBN 0-226-52071-4.
  52. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  53. ↑ Hovey, Edmund Otis, "The Bicentenary of the Birth of Carolus Linnaeus", New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1908.
  54. ↑ Chung, King-Thom and Ferris, Deam Hunter (1996). Martinus Willem Beijerinck (1851–1931): pioneer of general microbiology. AMS News 62, 539–543.
  55. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  56. ↑ Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, pp. 4, 107. (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005); ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
  57. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  58. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 59.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  60. ↑ Berzelius, Jöns (1779–1848) - Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography
  61. ↑ Jons Jacob - Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2007-08-02
  62. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  63. ↑ O. Hahn and F. Strassmann Über den Nachweis und das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans mittels Neutronen entstehenden Erdalkalimetalle (On the detection and characteristics of the alkaline earth metals formed by irradiation of uranium with neutrons), Naturwissenschaften Volume 27, Number 1, 11–15 (1939). The authors were identified as being at the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Chemie, Berlin-Dahlem. Received 1938-12-22.
  64. ↑ Chemistry Contexts. by Irwin, D; Farrelly, R; Garnett, P. Longman Sciences, (2001)
  65. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  66. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  67. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  68. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  69. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  70. ↑ p. 12, Plotting the globe: stories of meridians, parallels, and the international date line, Avraham Ariel and Nora Ariel Berger, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006, ISBN 0-275-98895-3.
  71. ↑ p. 389, "Eratosthenes", D. R. Dicks, in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. Charles Coulston Gillispie, vol. 4, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971.
  72. ↑ Ahmed, Akbar S. (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist". RAIN. 60 (60): 9–10. doi:10.2307/3033407
  73. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, pp. 4, 96. (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005); ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
  75. ↑ Jack Repcheck: The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity. London and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Simon & Schuster (2003).
  76. ↑ B. M. Das, Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Cengage Learning, 2010, p. 7 ISBN 978-0-495-41132-1
  77. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  78. ↑ p. 19, Reader's guide to the history of science, Arne Hessenbruch, Taylor & Francis, 2000, ISBN 1-884964-29-X.
  79. ↑ Lewis, Charles Lee, associate professor of the United States Naval Academy: Pathfinder of the Seas (book).
  80. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  81. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  82. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  83. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  84. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  85. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  86. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  87. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  88. ↑ UK Daily Telegraph obituary 2004-12-29.
  89. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  90. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  91. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  92. ↑ Vallejo-Manzur F. et al. (2003) "The resuscitation greats. Andreas Vesalius, the concept of an artificial airway." Resuscitation" 56:3–7
  93. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  94. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  95. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  96. ↑ Hippocrates, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006. Microsoft Corporation. Archived 2009-10-31.
  97. ↑ p. 4, Surgery: Basic Science and Clinical Evidence, Jeffrey A. Norton, Philip S. Barie, R. Randal Bollinger, Alfred E. Chang, Stephen F. Lowry, Sean J. Mulvihill, Harvey I. Pass, Robert W. Thompson, Springer, 2008, ISBN 0-387-30800-8.
  98. ↑ 98.0 98.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  99. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  100. ↑ Lavoisier, Antoine. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007-07-24.
  101. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  102. ↑ p. 533, Orthopaedic Pathology, Peter G. Bullough, Elsevier Health Sciences, 2009, 5th ed., ISBN 03-23074-73-1.
  103. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  104. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  105. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  106. ↑ 106.0 106.1 A. Singh and D. Sarangi (2003). "We need to think and act", Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery.
  107. ↑ 107.0 107.1 H. W. Longfellow (2002). "History of Plastic Surgery in India", Journal of Postgraduate Medicine.
  108. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  109. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  110. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.. See also Harry Armstrong.
  111. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  112. ↑ p. 283, Old-Time Makers of Medicine, James J. Walsh, New York: Fordham University Press, 1911.
  113. ↑ Pare, Ambroise." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007-08-25 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058441>.
  114. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  115. ↑ The knife man: the extraordinary life and times of John Hunter, father of modern surgery, Wendy Moore, Random House, 2005, ISBN 0-7679-1652-2.
  116. ↑ pp. 51–55, Pioneers of microbiology and the Nobel prize, Ulf Lagerkvist, World Scientific, 2003, ISBN 981-238-234-8.
  117. ↑ Joseph Lister, Father of Modern Surgery, Rhoda Truax, Bobbs Merrill, Indianapolis and New York, 1944.
  118. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  119. ↑ Paracelsus: Herald of Modern Toxicology - Borzelleca 53 (1): 2 - Toxicological Sciences
  120. ↑ Chladniite: A New Mineral Honoring the Father of Meteoritics, McCoy, T. J.; Steele, I. M.; Keil, K.; Leonard, B. F.; Endress, M., Meteoritics, vol. 28, no. 3, volume 28, page 394, July 1993
  121. ↑ "Cayley, Sir George." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007-08-25 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9360092>.
  122. ↑ Mark Denny (2007). "Ingenium: Five Machines That Changed the World". p. 34. JHU Press.
  123. ↑ Christianson, Gale (1984). In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & his times. New York: Free Press.
  124. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  125. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  126. ↑ André-Marie Ampère - Encyclopædia Britannica
  127. ↑  Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  128. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  129. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  130. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  131. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  132. ↑ Danielson, Dennis, "The First Copernican: Georg Joachim Rheticus and the Rise of the Copernican Revolution", Walker & Company, 2006
  133. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  134. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  135. ↑ R. L. Verma (1969). Al-Hazen: father of modern optics.
  136. ↑ Jim Al-Khalili, The 'first true scientist', BBC.co.uk, 2009-01-04.
  137. ↑ MLA style: "Bacon, Francis, Viscount Saint Alban, Baron of Verulam." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007-12-28 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108408>. APA style: Bacon, Francis, Viscount Saint Alban, Baron of Verulam. (2007).
  138. ↑ 138.0 138.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  139. ↑ Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. iUniverse, p. 155. ISBN 0-595-36877-8.
  140. ↑ R. Fitzpatrick (2011). A brief history of plasma physics.
  141. ↑ Heilbron, J. L. The Dilemmas of an Upright Man: Max Planck and the Fortunes of German Science (Harvard, 2000)
  142. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  143. ↑ Solomon Gandz (1936), The sources of al-Khwarizmi's algebra, Osiris I, p. 263–277: "In a sense, Khwarizmi is more entitled to be called the father of algebra than Diophantus, because Khwarizmi is the first to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake, Diophantus is primarily concerned with the theory of numbers."
  144. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  145. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  146. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  147. ↑ Poincaré, Henri, "Analysis situs", Journal de l'École Polytechnique ser 2, 1 (1895) pp. 1–123
  148. ↑ p. 750, Rudiments of Mathematics Part 1, M. N. Mukherjee, P. Mukhopadhyay, S. Sinha Roy & U. Dasgupta, Academic Publishers, 2008, 5th ed., ISBN 81-89781-54-5.
  149. ↑ p. 147, Collisions, rings, and other Newtonian N-body problems, Donald G. Saari, American Mathematical Society, 2005, ISBN 0-8218-3250-6.
  150. ↑ Gullberg, Jan (1997). Mathematics From The Birth Of Numbers. W. W. Norton
  151. ↑ Bell, E.T. [1937] (1986). Men of Mathematics, Touchstone edition, New York: Simon & Schuster, pp. 91–92.
  152. ↑ George Gheverghese Joseph (2000). The Crest of the Peacock. Princeton University Press.
  153. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  154. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  155. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  156. ↑ "Monge, Gaspard, comte de Peluse." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007-08-24 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9053349>.
  157. ↑ Artmann, Benno (1999). Euclid: The Creation of Mathematics. New York: Springer.
  158. ↑ Biggs, N. Lloyd, E. and Wilson, R. (1986). Graph Theory, 1736–1936 . London: Oxford University Press
  159. ↑ H.F. Baker (1926), "Corrado Segre", Journal of the London Mathematical Society 1:269
  160. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  161. ↑ Dick 1981, p. 174.
  162. ↑ van der Waerden 1985, p. 244.
  163. ↑ Marvin Jay Greenberg, Euclidean and Non-Euclidean geometries: Development and history New York: W. H. Freeman, 1993.
  164. ↑ p. 46, Aristarchus of Samos: The Ancient Copernicus, Thomas Heath, Oxford, 1913.
  165. ↑ Stigler, Stephen M. (1990). The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900. Belknap Press/Harvard University Press.
  166. ↑ O'Connor, John J; Edmund F. Robertson "Gérard Desargues". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
  167. ↑ O'Connor, John J; Edmund F. Robertson "Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
  168. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  169. ↑ Boyer's opinion may constructively be compared to Øystein Ore's opinion, that the Babylonians constructed trigonometric tables ca. 1600 BCE (Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.)
  170. ↑ Wheeler, Lynde, Phelps (1951). Josiah Willard Gibbs - the History of a Great Mind. Ox Bow Press.
  171. ↑ Michael J. Crowe (1994). A History of Vector Analysis : The Evolution of the Idea of a Vectorial System. Dover Publications; Reprint edition.
  172. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  173. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  174. ↑ Freeman J. Dyson, Mary Lucy Cartwright (1900–1998): Chaos theory, pp. 169–177, in Out of the Shadows: Contributions of Twentieth-Century Women to Physics, edited by Nina Byers and Gary Williams, 498 p. (Cambridge University Press, 2006); ISBN 0-521-82197-5
  175. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  176. ↑ Conway, F., and Siegelman, J., 2005. Dark Hero of the Information Age: in search of Norbert Wiener, the father of cybernetics. Basic Books, New York. 423 pp. ISBN 0-7382-0368-8
  177. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  178. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  179. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  180. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  181. ↑ p. 22, A Short History of Scientific Ideas to 1900, Charles Singer, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959.
  182. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  183. ↑ 184.0 184.1 Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshold [sic] Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette.
  184. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  185. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  186. ↑ 187.0 187.1 H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1.
  187. ↑ Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, pp. 4, 109. (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005); ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
  188. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  189. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  190. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  191. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  192. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  193. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  194. ↑ Auguste Comte, Britannica Student Encyclopedia. Accessed 2006-10-05.
  195. ↑ p. 87, Full Meridian of Glory, Paul Murdin, New York: Springer, 2009, ISBN 978-0-387-75533-5 (print), ISBN 978-0-387-75534-2 (online).
  196. ↑ 197.0 197.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  197. ↑ I. M. Oweiss (1988), "Ibn Khaldun, the Father of Economics", Arab Civilization: Challenges and Responses, New York University Press, ISBN 0-88706-698-4.
  198. ↑ L. K. Jha, K. N. Jha (1998). "Chanakya: the pioneer economist of the world", International Journal of Social Economics 25 (2–4), pp. 267–282
  199. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  200. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  201. ↑ Steven Pressman, Fifty Major Economists, Routledge 1999 (ISBN 0-415-13481-1), p. 20.
  202. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  203. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  204. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  205. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  206. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  207. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  208. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  209. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  210. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  211. ↑ Rothbard, p. 379.
  212. ↑ Woods, p. 155.
  213. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  214. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  215. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  216. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  217. ↑ Rothbard, p. 167
  218. ↑ Rothbard, p. 102
  219. ↑ Rothbard, pp. 100–101
  220. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.


Cite error: <ref> tags exist for a group named "Note", but no corresponding <references group="Note"/> tag was found, or a closing </ref> is missing

Retrieved from "https://infogalactic.com/w/index.php?title=List_of_people_considered_father_or_mother_of_a_scientific_field&oldid=726581225"