Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas

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The Americas, Western Hemisphere
Cultural regions of North American people at the time of contact
Early indigenous languages in the US

Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas is based upon cultural regions, geography, and linguistics. Anthropologists have named various cultural regions, with fluid boundaries, that are generally agreed upon with some variation. These cultural regions are broadly based upon the locations of indigenous peoples of the Americas from early European and African contact beginning in the late 15th century. When indigenous peoples have been forcibly removed by nation-states, they retain their original geographic classification. Some groups span multiple cultural regions.

Canada, Greenland, United States, and northern Mexico

In the United States and Canada, ethnographers commonly classify indigenous peoples into ten geographical regions with shared cultural traits, called cultural areas.[1] Greenland is part of the Arctic region. Some scholars combine the Plateau and Great Basin regions into the Intermontane West, some separate Prairie peoples from Great Plains peoples, while some separate Great Lakes tribes from the Northeastern Woodlands.

Arctic

Inuktitut dialect map
Early indigenous languages in Alaska

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Subarctic

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Main article: Indigenous peoples of the Subarctic
Distribution of Cree peoples

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Pacific Northwest Coast

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Main article: Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast

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Northwest Plateau

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Main article: Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau

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Plateau tribes include the following:

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Chinook peoples

Interior Salish

Sahaptin people

Other or both

Great Plains

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Main article: Plains Indians

Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains are often separated into Northern and Southern Plains tribes.

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Eastern Woodlands

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Main article: Indigenous peoples of the Eastern Woodlands

Northeastern Woodlands

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Main article: Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands

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Southeastern Woodlands

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Further information: Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands and Indigenous peoples of Florida

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Great Basin

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Main article: Indigenous peoples of the Great Basin

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California

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Main article: Indigenous peoples of California

Nota bene: The California cultural area does not exactly conform to the state of California's boundaries, and many tribes on the eastern border with Nevada are classified as Great Basin tribes and some tribes on the Oregon border are classified as Plateau tribes.[45]

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Southwest

This region is also called Oasisamerica and includes parts of what is now Arizona, Southern Colorado, New Mexico, Western Texas, Southern Utah, Chihuahua, and Sonora

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Further information: Prehistoric Southwestern cultural divisions

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Mexico and Mesoamerica

The regions of Oasisamerica, Aridoamerica, and Mesoamerica span multiple countries and overlap.

Aridoamerica

Aridoamerica region of North America

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Main article: Aridoamerica

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Mesoamerica

Map of Mesoamerica

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Circum-Caribbean

Partially organized per Handbook of South American Indians.[54]

Caribbean

Anthropologist Julian Steward defined the Antilles cultural area, which includes all of the Antilles and Bahamas, except for Trinidad and Tobago.[54]

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Central America

The Central American culture area includes part of El Salvador, most of Honduras, all of Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama, and some peoples on or near the Pacific coasts of Colombia and Ecuador.[54]

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Colombia and Venezuela

The Colombia and Venezuela culture area includes most of Colombia and Venezuela. Southern Colombia is in the Andean culture area, as are some peoples of central and northeastern Colombia, who are surrounded by peoples of the Colombia and Venezuela culture. Eastern Venezuela is in the Guianas culture area, and southeastern Colombia and southwestern Venezuela are in the Amazonia culture area.[54]

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Guianas

The Guianas in northern South America
The position of the Guianas is included in the neotropic ecozone in northern South America

This region includes northern parts Colombia, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela, and parts of the Amazonas, Amapá, Pará, and Roraima States in Brazil.

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Eastern Brazil

This region includes parts of the Ceará, Goiás, Espírito Santo, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Pará, and Santa Catarina states of Brazil

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Andes

The Tawantinsuyu, or fullest extent of the Inca Empire, which includes much the Andean cultural region

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Main article: Andes § Human activity

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Pacific lowlands

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Amazon

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Main article: Amazonia

Northwestern Amazon

This region includes Amazonas in Brazil; the Amazonas and Putumayo Departments in Colombia; Cotopaxi, Los Rios, Morona-Santiago, Napo, and Pastaza Provinces and the Oriente Region in Ecuador; and the Loreto Region in Peru.

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Eastern Amazon

This region includes Amazonas, Maranhão, and parts of Pará States in Brazil.

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Southern Amazon

This region includes southern Brazil (Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, parts of Pará, and Rondônia) and Eastern Bolivia (Beni Department).

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Southwestern Amazon

This region includes the Cuzco, Huánuco Junín, Loreto, Madre de Dios, and Ucayali Regions of eastern Peru, parts of Acre, Amazonas, and Rondônia, Brazil, and parts of the La Paz and Beni Departments of Bolivia.

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Gran Chaco

Approximate region of the Gran Chaco

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Main article: Gran Chaco

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Southern Cone

Patagonian languages at the time of European/African contact

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Main article: Southern Cone

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Languages

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Main article: Indigenous languages of the Americas

Indigenous languages of the Americas (or Amerindian Languages) are spoken by indigenous peoples from the southern tip of South America to Alaska and Greenland, encompassing the land masses which constitute the Americas. These indigenous languages consist of dozens of distinct language families as well as many language isolates and unclassified languages. Many proposals to group these into higher-level families have been made. According to UNESCO, most of the indigenous American languages in North America are critically endangered and many of them are already extinct.[62]

Genetic classification

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Main article: Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas

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Further information: Y-DNA haplogroups in indigenous peoples of the Americas
genetic groups according to DNA Tribes
  1. Arctic
  2. Salishan
  3. Athabaskan
  4. North Amerindian
  5. Ojibwa
  6. Mexican
  7. Mayan
  8. Central American
  9. Andean
  10. Amazonian
  11. Gran Chaco
  12. Patagonian

The haplogroup most commonly associated with Indigenous Americans is Haplogroup Q1a3a (Y-DNA).[63] Y-DNA, like (mtDNA), differs from other nuclear chromosomes in that the majority of the Y chromosome is unique and does not recombine during meiosis. This has the effect that the historical pattern of mutations can easily be studied.[64] The pattern indicates Indigenous Amerindians experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes; first with the initial-peopling of the Americas, and secondly with European colonization of the Americas.[65][66] The former is the determinant factor for the number of gene lineages and founding haplotypes present in today's Indigenous Amerindian populations.[65]

Human settlement of the Americas occurred in stages from the Bering sea coast line, with an initial 20,000-year layover on Beringia for the founding population.[67][68] The micro-satellite diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicates that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region.[69] The Na-Dené, Inuit and Indigenous Alaskan populations exhibit haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations, however are distinct from other indigenous Amerindians with various mtDNA mutations.[70][71][72] This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later populations.[73]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.29 2.30 2.31 2.32 2.33 2.34 Sturtevant and Trigger ix
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 "Preamble." Constitution of the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma .Retrieved 5 Dec 2012.
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 4.31 4.32 4.33 4.34 "Cultural Thesaurus". National Museum of the American Indian. Accessed 8 April 2014.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Sturtevant and Trigger 241
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Sturtevant and Trigger 198
  7. ↑ 7.00 7.01 7.02 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.06 7.07 7.08 7.09 7.10 Sturtevant and Trigger 161
  8. ↑ Sturtevant and Trigger 96
  9. ↑ Sturtevant and Trigger 255
  10. ↑ 10.00 10.01 10.02 10.03 10.04 10.05 10.06 10.07 10.08 10.09 10.10 10.11 10.12 10.13 10.14 10.15 10.16 10.17 10.18 10.19 10.20 10.21 10.22 10.23 10.24 10.25 10.26 10.27 10.28 10.29 10.30 10.31 10.32 10.33 10.34 10.35 10.36 10.37 10.38 Sturtevant and Fogelson, 69
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 Sturtevant and Fogelson, 205
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 Sturtevant and Fogelson, 374
  13. ↑ 13.00 13.01 13.02 13.03 13.04 13.05 13.06 13.07 13.08 13.09 13.10 13.11 13.12 13.13 13.14 13.15 13.16 13.17 13.18 13.19 13.20 13.21 13.22 13.23 Sturtevant and Fogelson, ix
  14. ↑ 14.00 14.01 14.02 14.03 14.04 14.05 14.06 14.07 14.08 14.09 14.10 14.11 14.12 Sturtevant and Fogelson, 214
  15. ↑ Sturtevant and Fogelson, 673
  16. ↑ 16.00 16.01 16.02 16.03 16.04 16.05 16.06 16.07 16.08 16.09 16.10 Sturtevant and Fogelson, 81-82
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Sturtevant and Fogelson, 315
  18. ↑ 18.00 18.01 18.02 18.03 18.04 18.05 18.06 18.07 18.08 18.09 18.10 18.11 18.12 18.13 18.14 18.15 18.16 18.17 18.18 18.19 Sturtevant, 617
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 Frank, Andrew K. Indian Removal. Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. Retrieved 10 July 2009.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Sturtevant and Fogelson, 188
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Sturtevant and Fogelson, 598-9
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Sturtevant and Fogelson, 290
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 23.7 23.8 Sturtevant and Fogelson, 293
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Sturtevant and Fogelson, 291
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Sturtevant and Fogelson, 302
  26. ↑ Haliwa-Saponi Tribe. . Retrieved 10 July 2009.
  27. ↑ Hann 1993
  28. ↑ Sturtevant and Fogelson, 78, 668
  29. ↑ 29.00 29.01 29.02 29.03 29.04 29.05 29.06 29.07 29.08 29.09 29.10 29.11 29.12 29.13 29.14 Hann 1996, 5-13
  30. ↑ Milanich 1999, p. 49.
  31. ↑ Milanich 1996, p. 46.
  32. ↑ Hann 2003:11
  33. ↑ Sturtevant and Fogelson, 190
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 34.5 D'Azevedo, ix
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 35.4 35.5 35.6 Pritzker, 230
  36. ↑ D'Azevedo, 161-2
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Loether, Christopher. "Shoshones". Encyclopedia of the Great Plains. Retrieved 20 Oct 2013.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 Shimkin 335
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 39.4 39.5 39.6 Murphy and Murphy 306
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 Murphy and Murphy 287
  41. ↑ 41.00 41.01 41.02 41.03 41.04 41.05 41.06 41.07 41.08 41.09 41.10 41.11 41.12 41.13 Thomas, Pendleton, and Cappannari 280–283
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 42.3 42.4 42.5 D'Azevedo, 339
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 43.3 D'Azevedo, 340
  44. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  45. ↑ Pritzker 112
  46. ↑ 46.00 46.01 46.02 46.03 46.04 46.05 46.06 46.07 46.08 46.09 46.10 46.11 46.12 46.13 46.14 46.15 46.16 46.17 46.18 46.19 46.20 46.21 46.22 46.23 46.24 46.25 46.26 46.27 46.28 46.29 46.30 46.31 46.32 46.33 46.34 46.35 46.36 46.37 46.38 46.39 46.40 46.41 46.42 46.43 46.44 46.45 46.46 Heizer ix
  47. ↑ Heizer 205-7
  48. ↑ Heizer 190
  49. ↑ Heizer 593
  50. ↑ Heizer 769
  51. ↑ Heizer 249
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 52.3 52.4 52.5 52.6 52.7 52.8 52.9 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  53. ↑ "Paipai Language (Akwa'ala)". Native Languages of the Americas. . Retrieved 10 Sept 2010.
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 54.3 Steward, Julian H. (1948) Editor. Handbook of South American Indians. Volume 4 The Circum-Caribbean Tribes. Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 143.
  55. ↑ "Aboriginal Roots of Cuban Culture". (retrieved 9 July 2011)
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 56.2 56.3 "Prehistory of the Caribbean Culture Area". Southeast Archaeological Center. (retrieved 9 July 2011)
  57. ↑ "Cacaopera". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. (retrieved 1 Dec 2011)
  58. ↑ 58.00 58.01 58.02 58.03 58.04 58.05 58.06 58.07 58.08 58.09 58.10 58.11 58.12 58.13 58.14 58.15 58.16 58.17 58.18 58.19 58.20 58.21 58.22 58.23 "Languages of Bolivia". Ethnologue. Retrieved 23 Oct 2012.
  59. ↑ "Apiaká: Introduction". Instituto Socioambiental: Povos Indígenas no Brasil. Retrieved 28 March 2012
  60. ↑ "Huachipaeri". Ethnologue. Retrieved 18 Feb 2012.
  61. ↑ 61.00 61.01 61.02 61.03 61.04 61.05 61.06 61.07 61.08 61.09 61.10 61.11 61.12 "Cultural Thesaurus". National Museum of the American Indian. (retrieved 18 Feb 2011)
  62. ↑ Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com).
  63. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  64. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  66. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  67. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. page 2
  68. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  69. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  70. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  71. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  72. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  73. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.

References

  • D'Azevedo, Warren L., volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 11: Great Basin. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1986. ISBN 978-0-16-004581-3.
  • Hann, John H. "The Mayaca and Jororo and Missions to Them", in McEwan, Bonnie G. ed. The Spanish Missions of "La Florida". Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida. 1993. ISBN 0-8130-1232-5.
  • Hann, John H. A History of the Timucua Indians and Missions. Gainesville, Florida: University Press of Florida, 1996. ISBN 0-8130-1424-7.
  • Hann, John H. (2003). Indians of Central and South Florida: 1513-1763. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-2645-8.
  • Heizer, Robert F., volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 8: California. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1978. ISBN 978-0-16-004574-5.
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  • Pritzker, Barry M. A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-19-513877-1.
  • Steward, Julian H., editor. Handbook of South American Indians, Volume 4: The Circum-Caribbean Tribes. Smithsonian Institution, 1948.
  • Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Bruce G. Trigger, volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians: Northeast. Volume 15. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1978. ASIN B000NOYRRA.
  • Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Raymond D. Fogelson, volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast. Volume 14. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2004. ISBN 0-16-072300-0.

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