9×19mm Parabellum

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"9mm" redirects here. For other cartridges with 9 mm bullets, see 9 mm caliber.
9×19 mm Parabellum
9 19 parabellum FMJ.jpg
9×19 mm Parabellum rounds and a bullet for comparison
Type Pistol
Place of origin  German Empire
Service history
Used by NATO and others
Wars World War I – present
Production history
Designer Georg Luger
Designed 1901
Produced 1902–present
Variants 9mm NATO
m/39B
9×19 mm Parabellum +P
9×19 mm 7N21 +P+
9×19 mm 7N31 +P+
Specifications
Parent case 7.65×21 mm Parabellum
Case type Rimless, tapered
Bullet diameter 9.01 mm (0.355 in)
Neck diameter 9.65 mm (0.380 in)
Base diameter 9.93 mm (0.391 in)
Rim diameter 9.96 mm (0.392 in)
Rim thickness 1.27 mm (0.050 in)
Case length 19.15 mm (0.754 in)
Overall length 29.69 mm (1.169 in)
Case capacity 0.862 cm3 (13.30 gr H2O)
Primer type Berdan or Boxer small pistol
Maximum pressure (C.I.P.) 235.00 MPa (34,084 psi)
Maximum pressure (SAAMI) 241.32 MPa (35,001 psi)
Ballistic performance
Bullet weight/type Velocity Energy
7.45 g (115 gr) FMJ 390 m/s (1,300 ft/s) 570 J (420 ft·lbf)
8.04 g (124 gr) FMJ 360 m/s (1,200 ft/s) 518 J (382 ft·lbf)
7.50 g (116 gr) JHP 377 m/s (1,240 ft/s) 533 J (393 ft·lbf)
7.45 g (115 gr) JHP +P 411 m/s (1,350 ft/s) 632 J (466 ft·lbf)
7.45 g (115 gr) JHP +P+ 426 m/s (1,400 ft/s) 678 J (500 ft·lbf)
Test barrel length: Tests 1,2&3: 150mm(5.91in) / Tests 4&5: 118mm(4.65in)
Source(s): Sellier & Bellot,[1] Buffalo Bore,[2] C.I.P.,[3] Cor-Bon[4]

The 9×19 mm Parabellum (abbreviated 9 mm, 9 mmP, 9×19 mm or 9×19) cartridge was designed by Georg Luger and introduced in 1902 by the German weapons manufacturer Deutsche Waffen- und Munitionsfabriken (DWM) for their Luger semi-automatic pistol.[5] For this reason, it is designated as the 9 mm Luger / 9 mm Luger +P by the SAAMI[6] and the 9 mm Luger by the C.I.P. (differentiating it from the 9 mm Makarov and 9 mm Browning cartridges). Under STANAG 4090, it is a standard cartridge for NATO forces as well as many non-NATO countries.[7]

The name Parabellum is derived from the Latin: Si vis pacem, para bellum ("If you seek peace, prepare for war"), which was the motto of DWM.[8][9]

According to the 2006 edition of Cartridges of the World, the 9×19 mm Parabellum is "the world's most popular and widely used military handgun cartridge."[10] In addition to being used by over 60% of police in the U.S., Newsweek credits 9×19 mm Parabellum pistol sales with making semiautomatic pistols more popular than revolvers.[11] The popularity of this cartridge can be attributed to the widely held conviction that it is effective in police and self-defense use.[12] Its low cost and wide availability contribute to the caliber's continuing popularity.

Origins

Georg Luger developed the 9×19 mm Parabellum cartridge from his earlier 7.65×21 mm Parabellum round, which itself was derived from the original 7.65×25 mm Borchardt cartridge in the Borchardt C-93 pistol. Shortening the length of the cartridge case used in the Borchardt pistol allowed him to improve the design of the toggle lock and to incorporate a smaller, angled grip. Luger's work on the Borchardt design evolved into the Luger pistol, first patented in 1898 and chambered in 7.65×21 mm Parabellum. Demand for larger calibers in military sidearms led to Luger to develop the 9×19 mm Parabellum cartridge for his new pistol. This was achieved by removing the bottleneck shape of the 7.65×21 mm Parabellum case, resulting in a tapered rimless cartridge encasing a bullet that was 9 mm in diameter.

In 1902, Luger presented the new round to the British Small Arms Committee, as well as three prototype versions to the U.S. Army for testing at Springfield Arsenal in mid-1903. The Imperial German Navy adopted the cartridge in 1904 and in 1908 the German Army adopted it as well.[10] The ogive of the bullet was slightly redesigned in the 1910s to improve feeding.

To conserve lead during World War II in Germany, the lead core was replaced by an iron core encased with lead. This bullet, identified by a black bullet jacket, was designated as the 08 mE (mit Eisenkern—"with iron core"). By 1944, the black jacket of the 08 mE bullet was dropped and these bullets were produced with normal copper-colored jackets. Another wartime variation was designated the 08 sE bullet and identified by its dark gray jacket, and was created by compressing iron powder at high temperature into a solid material (Sintereisen—"sintered iron").[13]

Popularity

After World War I, acceptance of the 9×19 mm Parabellum chambering increased, and 9×19 mm Parabellum pistols and submachine guns were adopted by military and police users in many countries.[14] The 9×19 mm Parabellum has become the most popular caliber for U.S. law enforcement agencies, primarily due to the availability of compact pistols with large magazine capacities that use the cartridge.[15]

Worldwide, the 9×19 mm Parabellum is one of the more popular pistol cartridges where it is legal (some countries ban civilian use of weapons that chamber current or former military service cartridges), and cartridges in this caliber are generally available anywhere pistol ammunition is sold.

From the early 1980s to the mid-1990s, a sharp increase occurred in the popularity of semiautomatic pistols in the U.S., a trend foreshadowed by the adoption of the Smith & Wesson Model 39 by the Illinois State Police in 1968. In addition, the Beretta M9 (a military version of the Beretta Model 92) was adopted by the U.S. Army in 1985. Previously, most American police departments issued .38 Special caliber revolvers with a six-shot capacity. The .38 Special was preferred to other weapons such as variants of the M1911 because it offered low recoil, was small and light enough to accommodate different shooters, and was relatively inexpensive.[16] The 9 mm is ballistically superior to the .38 Special revolver cartridge,[17] is shorter overall, and being an autoloader cartridge, it is stored in flat magazines, as opposed to cylindrical speedloaders. This, coupled with the advent of the so-called "wonder nines" led to many U.S. police departments exchanging their revolvers for some form of 9 mm semiautomatic handguns by the 1980s.[16]

In 2014, the FBI released a report detailing the potential combat effectiveness of the 9 mm cartridge when compared to other calibers such as the .45 ACP and the .40 Smith & Wesson cartridge that was specifically developed for use by the FBI. The report indicated that the new powders and more advanced bullet designs used in current 9 mm defensive loads allowed for the caliber to deliver comparable performance to other calibers, like the .45 ACP, and .40 S&W. In addition to this, the lower recoil, less wear, and higher capacity were all reasons that the report cited for the recent surge in orders of the ammunition from various police agencies. With a wider selection of officers being able to shoot handguns chambered in 9×19 mm, many departments choose this caliber so they can standardize around a single firearm and loading, making logistics and supply easier. Due to all of these factors, law enforcement orders of 9 mm ammo from all major ammunition manufacturers have spiked dramatically.[18]

Cartridge dimensions

Three projectile types: unjacketed (lead), full metal jacket, and hollow point

The 9×19 mm Parabellum has 0.86 ml (13.3 grains H2O) of cartridge case capacity.

9x19mm Parabellum.svg

9×19 mm Parabellum maximum C.I.P. cartridge dimensions:[3] All sizes are given in millimeters (mm).

The cartridge headspaces on the mouth of the case:[19] The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 250 mm (1 in 9.84 in), six grooves, ø lands = 8.82 mm, ø grooves = 9.02 mm, land width = 2.49 mm and the primer type is small pistol.

According to the official Commission Internationale Permanente pour l'Epreuve des Armes à Feu Portatives (CIP)rulings, the 9×19 mm Parabellum cartridge case can handle up to 235.00 MPa (34,084 psi) Pmax piezo pressure. In CIP-regulated countries every pistol cartridge combination has to be proofed at 130% of this maximum CIP pressure to certify for sale to consumers. This means that 9×19mm Parabellum chambered arms in C.I.P. regulated countries are currently (2014) proof tested at 305.50 MPa (44,309 psi) PE piezo pressure.[3]

The SAAMI pressure limit for the 9×19 mm Parabellum is set at 241.32 MPa (35,001 psi) piezo pressure.[20]
The SAAMI pressure limit for the 9×19 mm Parabellum +P is set at 265.45 MPa (38,500 psi) piezo pressure.

An empty case with primer weighs about 4 g (0.14 oz).

Performance

An expanded 124-grain 9×19 mm Parabellum jacketed hollow point

The round was originally designed to be lethal to 50 m, but the bullet travels and is lethal at longer ranges.[21] The 9 mm cartridge combines a flat trajectory with moderate recoil. According to the 1986 book Handloading: "the modern science of wound ballistics has established beyond reasonable doubt that the 9 mm cartridge is highly effective."[12]

Improvements and variations

In addition to the traditional pressure values for this cartridge, two main variants offer different pressure standards than the SAAMI or CIP requirements.

9 mm Commonwealth standard

The Cartridge S.A. Ball 9 m/m Mark Iz (9 m/m BALL MK 1z) was the standard Imperial 9 mm Parabellum round in World War Two and was produced from December 1941 to 1944. It was meant for use in semiautomatic pistols like the Inglis Browning Hi-Power. Bullet weight was 115 grains [7.45 grams]. Velocity was 1200 feet/second [365 meters/second] at 20 yards [18.28 meters]. It is noted by its purple annulus around a standard gold-colored primer.

The higher-powered Cartridge S.A. Ball 9 m/m Mark IIz (9m/m Ball MK 2z) was in production from September, 1943 to 1988, and was graded as NATO standard in 1962. It was designed for use in submachine guns such ase Lanchester, Sten, and Sterling. Bullet weight is 115 grains [7.45 grams] over a charge of 6 grains [0.388 grams] of Du Pont SR.4898 or Dynamit-Nobel Parabellum Powder. Velocity is 1300 feet/second [396 meters/second] at 20 yards [18.28 meters]. It can be distinguished from the 9-mm Ball MK 1z by its purple annulus around a silver primer.

India and Pakistan manufactured 9 mm Parabellum ammunition to this standard after independence.

Canada's Cartridge S.A. Ball 9 m/m CDN Mark I (9-mm Ball CDN MK 1), made from 1955 to present, has similar ballistics. Bullet weight is 115 grains [7.45 grams]. Nominal muzzle velocity is 1246.7 feet/second [380 meters/second].

9 mm NATO standard

The 9 mm cartridge has been manufactured by, or for, more than 70 different countries and has become a standard pistol caliber for NATO and other military forces around the world. Its official nomenclature among NATO members is "9 mm NATO". Standard bullet weight is 124 grains [8.03 grams].

The 9 mm NATO can be considered as an overpressure variant of the 9×19 mm Parabellum that is defined by NATO standards.[22] The service pressure Pmax of the 9 mm NATO is rated at 252 MPa (36,500 psi) where CIP rates the 9 mm Luger PTmax somewhat lower at 235 MPa (34,100 psi). The 315 MPa (45,700 psi) proofing test pressure used in the 9 mm NATO proof test, however, equals the proofing test pressure used in the 9 mm Luger CIP proof test.

While the NATO standards do not specify the type of bullet to be used, Declaration III of the Hague Convention of 1899 prohibits the use of expanding ammunition in warfare by signatories, so official 9 mm NATO ammunition is FMJ "ball" bullets.[23] Declaration III does not apply in conflicts involving nonsignatories to the Hague Convention, including paramilitary and other nongovernmental fighting forces.[24]

Swedish m/39

9 mm live ammunition m/39 (left, with black seal) and m/39B (right, with red seal and a slightly more pointed shape)
9 mm live ammunition m/39 and m/39B in their boxes

The 9 mm Parabellum entered Swedish service as m/39 with the import of the Kulsprutepistol m/39 from Austria, with a bullet weight of 7.5 g (115 gr).[25] During the Congo Crisis, the Swedish UN-contingent issued complaints about the performance of the m/39 cartridge (regular 9 mm Parabellum) used, which resulted in a commission of the Swedish Army establishing in 1962 that a new round was needed for the Carl Gustav m/45. The resulting m/39B had a tombac-plated steel jacket surrounding the lead core. While the lands of the barrel can cut into the tombac, the steel jacket resists deformation, thus causes the gas pressure to rise higher than the previous soft-jacketed m/39, giving the 6.8 g (106 gr) bullet a Vₒ of 420 m/s (1,378 ft/s)[26] and an impact energy of 600 joules.[citation needed] The mantle also acts like a penetrator when striking a target, going through up to 50 layers of kevlar, 7 cm bricks or 25 cm of wood, allowing the bullet to defeat body armour up to Type IIIA. The downside is the higher wear on the weapon, ultimately causing the service pistol m/40 to be withdrawn from service. The m/39 is also available as a "gallery round" – kammarpatron m/39 – black with blue tip, for indoor gallery shooting, and as a blank round – lös patron m/39 – which has the metal bullet replaced with one in red, hard plastic intended to disintegrate into dust when fired.

9×19mm +P variant

A 9 mm Luger jacketed flat point cartridge variant

Attempts to improve ballistics of the cartridge came in the early 1990s with the widespread availability of high-pressure loadings of the 9 mm cartridge. Such overpressure cartridges are labeled "+P" or in the case of very high pressure loadings "+P+".[27] Ballistic performance of these rounds was moderately improved over the standard loadings. In addition, improvements in jacketed hollow-point bullet technology have produced bullet designs that are more likely to expand and less likely to fragment than earlier iterations, giving a 9 mm bullet better terminal effectiveness.[28]

9 mm SESAMS

Cartridge detail 9mm fx red marking dodic aa12.jpg

The United States Military uses red and blue marking rounds in the 9 mm caliber known as Special Effects Small Arms Marking Systems (SESAMS). Commonly used for training simulations, these rounds are comparable in function to the paintballs used in paintball markers, except they are fired with a powder charge, and can be shot in Beretta M9 service pistols with only a barrel modification (The Glock 19-series 9 mm pistol, common among police departments, has a similar available modification). The 9 mm SESAMS rounds are fired from specially modified pistols, as well as M16 and M4 rifles, which are incapable of chambering standard live ammunition.

Box of "Cartridge, 9mm FX Blue Marking (DODIC AA21) with a modified Beretta M9 pistol

SESAMS weapons or components are normally painted blue or otherwise clearly marked, to denote their inert status and avoid a potentially catastrophic mixup with live-fire weapons.[29] This allows the armed forces to train with nearly identical equipment as used in real-life situations.[30] The brand name for this ammunition, which is sold commercially and to law enforcement, is Simunition.

Russian military overpressure variants

The Russian military has developed specialized 9×19 mm cartridges that use relatively light bullets at high muzzle velocities for both pistols and submachine guns to defeat body armour.[31]

Besides enhanced penetration capabilities, these overpressure variants offer a flatter trajectory and lessened recoil. The increase in service pressure causes a rise in bolt thrust, so the use of this overpressure ammunition induces more stress on critical weapon parts during firing. After initial research, conducted since the late 1980s under the codename "Grach", the Russian armed forces adopted two specialized 9×19 mm variants.[32][33]

Chambering 7Н21 (7N21) 7Н31 (7N31) / PBP
Cartridge weight 9.5 g (147 gr) 8.1 g (125 gr)
Bullet weight 5.2 g (80.2 gr) 4.1 g (63.3 gr)
Muzzle velocity 460 m/s (1,509 ft/s) 600 m/s (1,969 ft/s)
Muzzle energy 561 J (414 ft·lbf) 756 J (558 ft·lbf)
Accuracy of fire at
25 m (27 yd) (R50)		 25 mm (1.0 in)
Maximum pressure 280 MPa (41,000 psi)
  • R50 at 25 m (27 yd) means the closest 50 percent of the shot group will all be within a circle of 25 mm (1.0 in) radius at 25 m (27 yd).

The 7N21 (Cyrillic: 7Н21) 9×19 mm overpressure variant features an armour-piercing bullet and generates a peak pressure of 280 MPa (41,000 psi).[32] The 7N21 bullet features a hardened (subcaliber) steel penetrator core, enclosed by a bimetal jacket. The space between the core and jacket is filled with polyethylene, and the tip of the penetrator is exposed at the front of the bullet, to achieve better penetration. The penetration range for body armor is specified at up to 40 m. The MP-443 Grach and GSh-18 pistols and PP-19-01, PP-90M1 and PP-2000 submachine guns were designed for use with this overpressure cartridge. Jane's Infantry Weapons stated in 2003 that the 7N21 cartridge combines the 9×19 mm Parabellum dimensions with a 9×21 mm Gyurza bullet design and was developed specifically for the penetration of body armor and for the MP-443 Grach pistol, the latest Russian service pistol.[34]

The 7N31 (Cyrillic: 7Н31) / PBP 9×19 mm overpressure variant uses the same concept with a similar but lighter bullet that achieves higher muzzle velocity. The penetration of an 8-mm-thick steel plate is specified at up to 10 m. The 7N31 cartridge was developed in the late 1990s for the GSh-18 pistol. The 7N31 was adopted for the PP-90M1 and PP-2000 submachine guns. Its maximum service pressure remains unclear.

The method of construction of the two rounds allows them to be effective against both unarmored and armored targets. If the bullet strikes an unarmored target, it holds together to produce a wide wound channel. If the bullet strikes an armored target, the sleeve is stripped away and the core penetrates alone. The disadvantage of the rounds is that high impact velocities are needed for them to work effectively, so the bullets are relatively light to maximize their muzzle velocity. This means they lose velocity relatively quickly, limiting their effective range.[35]

9 mm major

The "9 mm major" is a term common among handloaders in International Practical Shooting Confederation and United States Practical Shooting Association competitions in the open division. It describes a 9×19 mm loaded to reach or surpass the "major" power factor in those competitions, something that very few commercial self-defense loads do. Such loads are only rarely within the limits defined by SAAMI or CIP, exceeding even +P loads. The 124gr projectiles are pushed beyond 1331 feet per second to meet USPSA power factor. Usually, they are loaded with relatively large charges of a low-volume slow-burning powder such as HS-6 and Autocomp. Sometimes they are made longer than standard OAL to allow more capacity with heavier bullets. Since they can be used with common 9×19 brass, they are considered a more economical alternative to .38 Super.

Other variants

VBR-B produces specialized bullets for this cartridge, a two-part controlled fragmenting projectile and an armor-piercing bullet that features a brass sabot and a hardened steel penetrator. These are designed for increasing the content of the permanent wound cavity and double the chance to hit a vital organ.[36]

U.S. data

The energy delivered by most 9 mm loads allows for significant expansion and penetration with premium jacketed hollow-point bullets. Illinois State Police, Border Patrol, Federal Air Marshals, and United States Secret Service favored and used 7.5 g (115 gr) +P+ 9 mm loads at 400 m/s (1,300 ft/s) for years with excellent results.[28] Massad Ayoob has stated that the "Tried, Tested, and True" 7.5 g (115 gr) +P or +P+ is the best self-defense load in this caliber.[28] Proponents of the hydrostatic shock theory contend that the energy of the 9 mm cartridge is capable of imparting remote wounding effects known as hydrostatic shock, in human-sized living targets.[37][38][39]

The 9×19 mm Parabellum pistols with standard (not extended) double-stack magazines can hold up to 19 rounds, such as the Springfield XDM-9.

The table below shows common performance parameters for several 9×19 mm loads. Bullet weights ranging from 115 to 147 gr (7.5 to 9.5 g) are common. Loads are available with energies from just over 400 J (300 ft·lb) to 680 J (500 ft·lb), and penetration depths from 200 mm (8 in) to over 1.0 m (40 in) are available for various applications and risk assessments.

Manufacturer Load Mass Velocity Energy Expansion[40] Penetration[40] PC[40] TSC[40]
Cor-Bon JHP+P 7.5 g (115 gr) 410 m/s (1,350 ft/s) 630 J (465 ft·lb) 14 mm (0.55 in) 360 mm (14.2 in) 56 mL (3.4 cu in) 631 mL (38.5 cu in)
ATOMIC Ammo JHP+P 8.0 g (124 gr) 400 m/s (1,300 ft/s) 630 J (465 ft·lb) 15 mm (0.60 in) 330 mm (13 in) "N/A" "N/A"
Speer Gold Dot JHP 8.0 g (124 gr) 400 m/s (1,310 ft/s) 640 J (472 ft·lb) 18 mm (0.70 in) 337 mm (13.25 in) 84 mL (5.1 cu in) 616 mL (37.6 cu in) (est)
Federal HydraShok JHP +P+ 8.0 g (124 gr) 370 m/s (1,220 ft/s) 560 J (410 ft·lb) 17 mm (0.67 in) 340 mm (13.4 in) 77 mL (4.7 cu in) 734 mL (44.8 cu in)
Remington Golden Saber JHP 9.5 g (147 gr) 300 m/s (990 ft/s) 430 J (320 ft·lb) 16 mm (0.62 in) 370 mm (14.5 in) 72 mL (4.4 cu in) 544 mL (33.2 cu in)
Winchester Silvertip 7.5 g (115 gr) 373 m/s (1,225 ft/s) 519 J (383 ft·lb) 18 mm (0.72 in) 200 mm (8.0 in) 54 mL (3.3 cu in) 274 mL (16.7 cu in)
Winchester WWB JHP 9.5 g (147 gr) 300 m/s (990 ft/s) 430 J (320 ft·lb) 15 mm (0.58 in) 400 mm (15.9 in) 69 mL (4.2 cu in) 321 mL (19.6 cu in)
Winchester FMJ 7.5 g (115 gr) 352 m/s (1,155 ft/s) 462 J (341 ft·lb) 9.1 mm (0.36 in) 620 mm (24.5 in) 41 mL (2.5 cu in) 174 mL (10.6 cu in)

Key:
Expansion: expanded bullet diameter (ballistic gelatin).
Penetration: penetration depth (ballistic gelatin).
PC: permanent cavity volume (ballistic gelatin, FBI method).
TSC: temporary stretch cavity volume (ballistic gelatin).

Synonyms

  • 9×19
  • 9 mm
  • 9 mm Luger
  • 9 mm NATO
  • 9×19 mm
  • 9 mil
  • 9×19 mm NATO
  • 9 mm Parabellum
  • 9 mm Para
  • 9 mm P

See also

References

  1. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  2. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 C.I.P. TDCC sheet 9 mm Luger
  4. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  5. ↑ Hogg, Ian V.; Weeks, John S. Military Small Arms of the 20th Century (7th Edition), p.40. Krause Publications, 2000
  6. ↑ SAAMI 9mm Luger / 9mm Luger +P cartridge and chamber drawings
  7. ↑ NATO Infantry Weapons Standardization, Per G. Arvidsson, ChairmanWeapons & Sensors Working GroupLand Capability Group 1 – Dismounted Soldier NATO Army Armaments Group
  8. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  9. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  11. ↑ Adler, Jerry, et al. "Story of a Gun." Newsweek 149.18 (30 April 2007): 36–39. MasterFILE Premier. EBSCO. Dallas Public Library, Dallas, TX. retrieved 10 June 2009. Newsweek online edition
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Davis, William C. (1986). Handloading, Second Printing: National Rifle Association. ISBN 0-935998-34-9 p242-243
  13. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  14. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  15. ↑ CCI/Speer Inc. (2007). Reloading Manual #14. ISBN 978-0-9791860-0-4.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  17. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  18. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  19. ↑ Wilson, R. K. Textbook of Automatic Pistols, p.239. Plantersville, SC: Small Arms Technical Publishing Company, 1943.
  20. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  21. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  22. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  23. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  24. ↑ http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/dec99-03.asp
  25. ↑ "Hemvärnet 1940–1990, 1990. Red. Bo Kjellander s. 259–260.
  26. ↑ Arméstabens taktiska avdelning februari 1962 : "Erfarenheterna från striderna i Kongo under september och december 1961"
  27. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  29. ↑ Bianco, Michael (4 June 2009) "Marines conduct urban warfare training ", marines.mil, Retrieved 21 December 2009. (Archived by WebCite at http://www.webcitation.org/5mCeN99CA)
  30. ↑ Senior Master Sgt. Steven Bliss (6 August 2009) "Commando Warrior adds realistic combat training with simunitions " Retrieved 21 December 2009
  31. ↑ Russian 9×19mm Pistol Rounds, Land Forces Weapons Export Catalog, page 109
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  33. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  34. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  35. ↑ Where Next For PDWs? by Anthony G Williams
  36. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  37. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  38. ↑ Sturtevant B, Shock Wave Effects in Biomechanics, Sadhana, 23: 579–596, 1998.
  39. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 40.3 Marshall and Sanow, Street Stoppers, Appendix A, Paladin 2006

External links

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