Americanist phonetic notation

Americanist phonetic notation
Type	Alphabet
Languages	Reserved for phonetic transcription of any language
Time period	1880s to the present
Parent systems	Latin alphabet, augmented by Greek Americanist phonetic notation

Americanist phonetic notation, also known as the North American Phonetic Alphabet or NAPA, is a system of phonetic notation originally developed by European and American anthropologists and language scientists (students of Neo-grammarians) for the phonetic and phonemic transcription of Native American and European languages. It is still commonly used by linguists working on, among others, Slavic, Indic, Uralic, Semitic and Caucasian languages (however, Uralists commonly use a variant known as Uralic Phonetic Alphabet). The term "Americanist phonetic alphabet" is misleading because it has always been widely used outside the Americas. For example, a version of it is the standard for the transcription of Arabic in articles published in the Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, the journal of the German Oriental Society.

Certain symbols in NAPA have been used as nonstandard variants of IPA symbols in certain transcriptions.

History

John Wesley Powell used an early set of phonetic symbols in his publications (particularly Powell 1880) on American language families, although he chose symbols which had their origins in work by other phoneticians and American writers (e.g., Pickering 1820; Cass 1821a, 1821b; Hale 1846; Lepsius 1855, 1863; Gibbs 1861; and Powell 1877). The influential anthropologist Franz Boas used a somewhat different set of symbols (Boas 1911). In 1916, a publication by the American Anthropological Society greatly expanded upon Boas's alphabet. This same alphabet was discussed and modified in articles by Bloomfield & Bolling (1927) and Herzog et al. (1934). The Americanist notation may be seen in the journals American Anthropologist, International Journal of American Linguistics, and Language. Useful sources explaining the symbols, some with comparisons of the alphabets used at different times, are Campbell (1997:xii-xiii), Goddard (1996:10-16), Langacker (1972:xiii-vi), Mithun (1999:xiii-xv), and Odden (2005).

It is often useful to compare the Americanist tradition with another widespread tradition, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Unlike the IPA, Americanist phonetic notation does not require a strict harmony among character styles: letters from the Greek and Latin alphabets are used side-by-side. Another contrasting feature is that, to represent some of the same sounds, the Americanist tradition relies heavily on letters modified with diacritics; whereas the IPA, which reserves diacritics for other specific uses, gave Greek and Latin letters new shapes. These differing approaches reflect the traditions' differing philosophies. The Americanist linguists were interested in a phonetic notation that could be easily created from typefaces of existing orthographies. This was seen as more practical and more cost-efficient, as many of the characters chosen already existed in Greek and East European orthographies.

Abercrombie (1991:44-45) recounts the following concerning the Americanist tradition:

In America phonetic notation has had a curious history. Bloomfield used IPA notation in his early book An Introduction to the Study of Language, 1914, and in the English edition of his more famous Language, 1935. But since then, a strange hostility has been shown by many American linguists to IPA notation, especially to certain of its symbols.

An interesting and significant story was once told by Carl Voegelin during a symposium held in New York in 1952 on the present state of anthropology. He told how, at the beginning of the 1930s, he was being taught phonetics by, as he put it, a "pleasant Dane", who made him use the IPA symbol for sh in ship, among others. Some while later he used those symbols in some work on an American Indian language he had done for Sapir. When Sapir saw the work he "simply blew up", Voegelin said, and demanded that in future Voegelin should use ‘s wedge’ (as š was called), instead of the IPA symbol.

I have no doubt that the "pleasant Dane" was H. J. Uldall, one of Jones's most brilliant students, who was later to become one of the founders of glossematics, with Louis Hjelmslev. Uldall did a great deal of research into Californian languages, especially into Maidu or Nisenan. Most of the texts he collected were not published during his lifetime. It is ironic that when they were published, posthumously, by the University of California Press, the texts were "reorthographized", as the editor's introduction put it: the IPA symbols Uldall had used were removed and replaced by others.

What is strange is that the IPA symbols seem so obviously preferable to the Americanist alternatives, the ‘long s’ to the ‘s wedge’, for example. As Jones often pointed out, in connected texts, for the sake of legibility diacritics should be avoided as far as possible. Many Americanist texts give the impression of being overloaded with diacritics.

One may wonder why there should be such a hostility in America to IPA notation. I venture to suggest a reason for this apparently irrational attitude. The hostility derives ultimately from the existence, in most American universities, of Speech Departments, which we do not have in Britain. Speech Departments tend to be well-endowed, large, and powerful. In linguistic and phonetic matters they have a reputation for being predominantly prescriptive, and tend to be considered by some therefore to be not very scholarly. In their publications and periodicals the notation they use, when writing of pronunciation, is that of the IPA. My belief is that the last thing a member of an American Linguistics Department wants is to be mistaken for a member of a Speech Department; but if he were to use IPA notation in his writings he would certainly lay himself open to the suspicion that he was.

Alphabet

Consonants

Below is a generalized chart of phonetic symbols used by linguists of the Americanist tradition for transcribing consonant sounds.

				Bilabial	Labiodental	Dental	Alveolar	Retroflex	Alveopalatal	Palatal (pre-velar)	Velar	Uvular (post-velar)	Pharyngeal (faucal)	Laryngeal
Stop (oral)	plain		voiceless	p		t̯	t	ṭ	tʸ	k̯	k	q
			voiced	b		d̯	d	ḍ	dʸ	g̑	g	ġ
	glottalized		voiceless (ejective)	p̓		t̯̓	t̓	ṭ̓	t̓ʸ	k̯̓	k̓	q̓		ʔ
			voiced (imploded)	b̓			d̓				g̓	ġ̓
Affricate	central	voiceless			pᶠ	tᶿ	c	č̣	č		kˣ	qˣ̣
		voiced			bᵛ	dᶞ	ʒ	ǯ̣	ǯ		gᵞ	ġᵞ̇
		glottalized				t̓ᶿ	c̓	č̣̓	č̓
	lateral	voiceless					ƛ
		voiced					λ
		glottalized					ƛ̓
Fricative	central	voiceless		φ	f	θ	s	ṣ̌	š	x̯	x	x̣	ḥ	h
						s̯
		voiced		β	v	ð	z	ẓ̌	ž	γ̑	γ	γ̇	ʕ
						z̯
		glottalized					s̓
	lateral	voiceless					ł
		glottalized					ł̓
Nasal		voiceless		M	Ɱ		N		Ñ		Ṇ
		voiced		m	ɱ	n̯	n	ṇ	ñ	ŋ̑	ŋ	ŋ̇
		glottalized		m̓			n̓				ŋ̓	ŋ̇̓
Liquid	rhotic	plain					r	ṛ
		glottalized					r̓
	lateral	plain				l̯	l	ḷ	l̃
		glottalized					l̓
	glide	plain		w						y
		glottalized		w̓						y̓

Doubly articulated stops are written with an initial superscript: ⟨ᵏp ᵍb ᵍɓ ᵑm⟩ for [k͡p ɡ͡b ɠ͡ɓ ŋ͡m].

Notes:

• Among the dental fricatives, [θ] and [ð] are slit fricatives while [s̯] and [z̯] are grooved fricatives.
• W, Y, R, L etc. are voiceless. w̃, ỹ are nasalized.
• There may be a distinction between laminal retroflex ṣ̌ and apical retroflex ṣ.

Rhotics table

Most languages only have one phonemic rhotic consonant (only about 18% of the world's languages have more than one rhotic). As a result, rhotic consonants are generally transcribed with the < r > character. This usage is common practice in Americanist and also other notational traditions (such as the IPA). This lack of detail, although economical and phonologically sound, requires a more careful reading of a given language's phonological description to determine the precise phonetics. A list of rhotics is given below.

RHOTICS (ALVEOLAR)

Approximant	r
Flap	ř
Tap	ᴅ
Trill	r̃

Thus uvular trill ⟨ṛ̃⟩ etc. Other flaps are ⟨ň⟩ etc.

Alternate symbols

There are many alternate symbols seen in Americanist transcription. Below are some equivalent symbols matched with the symbols shown in the consonant chart above.

¢   =   c   j   =   ʒ   ǰ   =   ǯ   ƚ   =   ł   ɸ   =   φ

G   =   ġ   X   =   ẋ   ʸ   =   fronted velar (e.g., kʸ = k̯, gʸ = g̑)

The fronting diacritic may be a caret rather than an inverted breve, e.g. dental ⟨ṱ⟩ and palatal ⟨k̭⟩.

In addition, many researchers use the x-haček (x̌) for the voiceless uvular fricative. The use of the standard IPA belted-l (ɬ) for the voiceless lateral fricative is becoming increasingly common.

Pullum & Ladusaw

According to Pullum & Ladusaw (1996), current Americanist symbols are closer to the IPA. There is however little standardization of rhotics, and ⟨ṛ⟩ may be either retroflex or uvular. Only precomposed affricates are shown; others may be indicated by digraphs.

		Bilabial	Labio- dental	Inter- dental	Dental	Alveolar	Retroflex	Palato- alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Pharyn- geal	Glottal
Stop (oral)	voiceless	p			t̯	t	ṭ		k̯	k	q		ʔ
	voiced	b			d̯	d	ḍ		g̑	g	ġ
Affricate	voiceless					ȼ		č
	voiced					dz		ǰ
Lateral affricate	voiceless					ƛ
	voiced					λ
Fricative	voiceless	ɸ	f	θ	s̯	s	ṣ	š	x̯	x	x̣	ħ	h
	voiced	β	v	ð	z̯	z	ẓ	ž	γ̑	γ	γ̇	ʕ	ɦ
Lateral fricative	voiceless					ł
Nasal		m	ṃ			n	ṇ		ñ	ŋ	ŋ̇
Rhotic						r	ṛ				ṛ
Lateral							l	ḷ
Glide		(w)							y	(w)

Ejectives and implosives follow the same conventions as in the IPA.

Vocoids

Vowels and glides.

		Front		Central		Back
		spread	rounded	spread	rounded	spread	rounded
High	glide	y	ẅ			ÿ	w
	tense	i	ü	ɨ	ʉ	ï	u
	lax	ɪ	ᴜ̈			ɪ̈	ᴜ
Mid	tense	e	ö	ə		ë	o
	lax	ɛ	ɔ̈	ʌ		ɛ̈	ɔ
Low		æ		a		ɑ	ɒ

Notes:

• Voiceless vocalics can be transcribed with capital or small capital letters, e.g. [W] = voiceless [w], [A] = voiceless [a].

Pullum & Ladusaw

According to Pullum & Ladusaw (1996), current Americanist usage is more-or-less as follows (no system has been standardized):

Americanist vowel symbols

		Front		Central		Back
		unround	round	unround	round	unround	round
High	(higher)	i	ü	ɨ	ʉ	ï	u
	lower	ɪ	ᴜ̈	ᵻ	ᵾ	ɪ̈	ᴜ
Mid	higher	e	ö	ə		ë	o
	lower	ɛ	ɔ̈	ʌ			ɔ
Low		æ		a/ɑ
Lower-Low		a		ɑ			ɒ

Bloch & Trager

Bloch & Trager (1942) is as follows. They use a single dot for central vowels and a dieresis to reverse backness. The only central vowels with their own letters are <ɨ>, which already has a dot, and <ᵻ>, which would not be distinct if formed with a dot.

Bloch & Trager vowel symbols

	Front		Central		Back
	unround	round	unround	round	unround	round
High	i	ü	ɨ	u̇	ï	u
Lower-high	ɪ	ᴜ̈	ᵻ	ᴜ̇	ɪ̈	ᴜ
Higher-mid	e	ö	ė	ȯ	ë	o
Mean-mid	ᴇ	ꭥ̈	ᴇ̇	ꭥ̇	ᴇ̈	ꭥ
Lower-mid	ɛ	ɔ̈	ɛ̇	ɔ̇	ɛ̈	ɔ
Higher-low	æ	ω̈	æ̇	ω̇	æ̈	ω
Low	a	ɒ̈	ȧ	ɒ̇	ä	ɒ

Chomsky & Halle

Chomsky & Halle (1968) is as follows. In addition, there is ⟨ə⟩ for an unstressed reduced vowel.

Chomsky & Halle vowel symbols

		[−back]		[+back]
		[−round]	[+round]	[−round]	[+round]
[+high −low]	[+tense]	i	ü	ᵻ̄	u
	[−tense]	ɪ	ᴜ̈	ᵻ	ᴜ
[−high −low]	[+tense]	e	ȫ	ʌ̄	ō
	[−tense]	ɛ	ö	ʌ	o
[−high +low]	[+tense]	ǣ	ɔ̄ē*	ā	ɔ̄
	[−tense]	æ	ɔe*	a	ɔ

Notes:
* This ligature, Unicode ꭢ, does not yet have wide font support.

Diacritics

Diacritics are widely used in Americanist notation. Unlike the IPA, which seeks to use as few diacritics as possible, the Americanist notation uses a narrow set of symbols and then relies on diacritics to indicate a sound's phonetic value.

Historical charts of 1916

The following charts were agreed by committee of the American Anthropological Association in 1916.

The vowel chart is based on the classification of H. Sweet. The high central vowels are differentiated by moving the centralizing dot to the left rather than with a cross stroke. IPA equivalents are given in a few cases that may not be clear.

	narrow			wide
	back	mixed	front	back	mixed	front
high	ï	˙ı	i	ɩ̈	˙ɩ	ɩ
mid	α [ʌ]		e	a		ε
low					ȧ	ä
high round	u	u̇	ü	υ	υ̇	ϋ
mid round	o	ȯ	ö	ɔ	ɔ̇	ɔ̈
low round	ω	ω̇	ω̈

	Stops					Spirants			Affricates			Nasals		Laterals			Lateral Affricates			Rolled Consonants
	Surd	Sonant	Intermed.	Aspirated	Glot- talized	Surd	Sonant	Glot- talized*	Surd	Sonant	Glot- talized*	Surd	Sonant	Surd	Sonant	Glot- talized*	Surd	Sonant	Glot- talized*	Surd	Sonant	Glot- talized*
Bilabial (rounded)	pw	bw	ʙw	pw‛	p̓w , pw!	ƕ	w	ƕ!	pƕ	bw	pƕ!	ᴍw	mw
Bilabial (unrounded)	p	b	ʙ	p‛	p̓ , p!	φ	β	φ!	pφ	bβ	pφ!	ᴍ	m
Dento- labial						f	v	f!	pf	bv	pf!
Inter- dental						θ	ϑ	θ!	tθ	dϑ	tθ!
Linguo- dental	t̯	d̯	ᴅ̯	t̯‛	t̯̓ , t̯!	s̯	z̯	s̯!	t̯s	d̯z	t̯s!	ɴ̯	n̯	ƚ̯ , ʟ̯	l̯	ƚ̯!	t̯ƚ	d̯l	t̯ƚ!	ʀ̯	r̯	ʀ̯!
Linguo- alveolar	t	d	ᴅ	t‛	t̓ , t!	s	z	s!	ts	dz	ts!	ɴ	n	ƚ , ʟ	l	ƚ!	tƚ	dl	tƚ!	ʀ	r	ʀ!
Cerebral	ṭ	ḍ	ᴅ̣	ṭ‛	ṭ̓ , ṭ!	ṣ	ẓ	ṣ!	ṭs	ḍz	ṭs!	ɴ̣	ṇ	ƚ̣ , ʟ̣	ḷ	ƚ̣!	ṭƚ	ḍl	ṭƚ!	ʀ̣	ṛ	ʀ̣!
Dorso- dental	τ̯	δ̯	Δ̯	τ̯‛	τ̯̓ , τ̯!	σ̯	ζ̯	σ̯!	τ̯σ	δ̯ζ	τ̯σ!	ν̯	ν̯	ᴧ̯	λ̯	ᴧ̯!	τ̯ᴧ	δ̯ᴧ	τ̯ᴧ!
Dorsal	τ	δ	Δ	τ‛	τ̓ , τ!	σ	ζ	σ!	τσ	δζ	τσ!	ν	ν	ᴧ	λ	ᴧ!	τᴧ	δᴧ	τᴧ!
Dorso- palatal	τ̣	δ̣	Δ̣	τ̣‛	τ̣̓ , τ̣!	σ̣	ζ̣	σ̣!	τ̣σ	δ̣ζ	τ̣σ!	ν̣	ν̣	ᴧ̣	λ̣	ᴧ̣!	τ̣ᴧ	δ̣ᴧ	τ̣ᴧ!
Anterior c-sounds	(τy)	(δy)	(Δy)	(τy‛)	(τ̓ , τy!)	cy	jy	cy!	tcy	djy	tcy!	( ν y)	( ν y)	(ᴧy)	(λy)	(ᴧy!)	(τᴧy)	(δᴧy)	(τᴧy!)
Mid c-sounds	(ty)	(dy)	(ᴅy)	(ty‛)	(t̓ , ty!)	c	j	c!	tc	dj	tc!	(ɴy)	(ny)	(ƚy , ʟy)	(ly)	(ƚy!)	(tƚy)	(dly)	(tƚy!)
Posterior c-sounds	(ṭy)	(ḍy)	(ᴅ̣y)	(ṭy‛)	(ṭ̓ , ṭy!)	c̣	j̣	c̣!	ṭc	ḍj	ṭc!	(ɴ̣y)	(ṇy)	(ƚ̣y , ʟ̣y)	(ḷy)	(ƚ̣y!)	(ṭƚy)	(ḍly)	(ṭƚy!)
Anterior palatal	k̯	g̯	ɢ̯	k̯‛	k̯̓ , k̯!	x̯	γ̯	x̯!	k̯x	g̯γ	k̯x!	Ŋ̯	ŋ̯				k̯ƚ	g̯l	k̯ƚ!	Ρ̯	ρ̯	ρ̯!
Mid- palatal	k	g	ɢ	k‛	k̓ , k!	x	γ	x!	kx	gγ	kx!	Ŋ	ŋ				kƚ	gl	kƚ!	Ρ	ρ	ρ!
Back palatal, velar	ḳ (q)	g̣	ɢ̣	ḳ‛	ḳ̓ , ḳ!	x̣	γ̣	x̣!	ḳx	g̣γ	ḳx!	Ŋ̣	ŋ̣				ḳƚ	g̣l	ḳƚ!	Ρ̣	ρ̣	ρ̣!
Glottal	’			’‛		‛ , h	a (any vowel)		’‛											(a̓)
Laryngeal	’̣			’̣‛		ḥ	(any vowel with laryngeal resonance)		’̣ḥ

Notes:

• surd = voiceless; sonant = voiced; intermed. = partially voiced
• In the glottalized stop column, the phonetic symbol appearing on the left side (which is a consonant plus an overhead single quotation mark) represents a weakly glottalized stop (i.e. weakly ejective). The symbol on the right side is strongly glottalized (i.e. it is articulated very forcefully). Example: [k̓ ] = weakly glottalized, [k!] = strongly glottalized. (Cf. k’ = [k] followed by glottal stop.) This convention is only shown for the glottalized stops, but may be used for any of the glottalized consonants.
• "Laryngeal" refers to either pharyngeal or epiglottal.

See also

• Phonetic transcription
• International Phonetic Alphabet
• English Phonetic Alphabet
• Uralic Phonetic Alphabet
• Teuthonista
• Phonetics
• Phonology

External links

• Description of phonetics using Americanist notation

Bibliography

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