Arrian

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Arrian
Lucius Flavius Arrianus
Born c. 86
Nicomedia, Bithynia, Asia Minor
Died c. 160[1]
Athens
Ethnicity Greek
Occupation Historian, public servant, military commander and philosopher

Arrian of Nicomedia (c. 86/89 – c. after 146/160 AD;[2][3] /ˈæriən/; Latin: Lucius Flavius Arrianus; Greek Αρριανός Arrianós) was born in Greece, and a historian, public servant, military commander and philosopher of the Roman period.[3]

The Anabasis of Alexander by Arrian is considered the best source on the campaigns of Alexander the Great.

Arrian's life

Arrian was born in Nicomedia (present-day Izmit), the provincial capital of Bithynia, Dio called him Flavius Arrianus Nicomediansis. In respect to his birth date, sources provide similar dates for his birth; within a few years prior to 90, 89, and 85 - 90 AD. The line of reasoning for dates belonging to 85-90 AD is from the fact of Arrian being made a consul around 130 AD, and the usual age for this, during this period, being forty-two years of age. (ref. p. 312, & SYME 1958, same page).His family was from the provincial aristocracy of Greek stock, and his full name, L. Flavius Arrianus, indicates that he was a Roman citizen, suggesting that the citizenship went back several generations, probably to the time of the Roman conquest some 170 years before.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9]

Sometime during the 2nd century AD (117 to 120 AD) while in Epirus, probably Nicopolis, Arrian attended lectures of Epictetus of Nicopolis, and proceeded within a time to fall into pupillage of him, a fact attested to by Lucian. All that is known about the life of Epictetus is due to Arrian, in that Arrian left a Encheiridion (Handbook) of Epictetus' philosophy. After Epirus he went to Athens, while there he became known as the young Xenophon, as a consequence of the similarity of his relation to Epictetus as Xenophon had to Socrates.[10][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17]

For a period, some time about 126 AD, a friend of the emperor Hadrian, who appointed him to the Senate. First consul suffectus, during 132 AD (Howatson shows 131) he was made prefect or legate (governor) of Cappadocia,by Hadrian, a service he continued for a six-year duration. When he retired, Arrian went to live in Athens, where he became archon sometime during 145 or 146 (EJ chinnock shows, he retired to Nicomedia and was appointed priest to Demeter and Persephone while there). He died in the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius.[10][13][13][17][18][18][19][20][21][22]

Arrian referred to himself as the second Xenophon, on account of the reputation and esteem of him. Lucian stated him to be:[14][23]

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a Roman of the first rank with a life-long attachment to learning

— quote of Lucian in P. E. Easterling, B. M. W. Knox -p.143

this quality is identified as paideia ( παιδεια ) which is the quality considered to be of one who is known as an educated and learned personage,id est, one who is highly esteemed and important.[14][24][25][26][27][28]

Works

There are eight extant works (c.f. - Syvänne, foot of p. 260). The Indica and the Anabasis are the only works completely extant. The entire remaining are known as FGrH 156 to designate those collected fragments which exist.[10][21][29][30]

Voyage round the Euxine sea

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Main article: Periplus of the Euxine Sea

This work is the earliest extant that is dated with any confidence. It is a writing addressed to the Emperor, Caesar Adrian Augustus.[6][31][32]

Encheiridion, and the Discourses, of Epictetus

Some writing was made from the lectures of Epictetus. Arrian was a pupil of Epictetus around 108 AD. Arrian chose to transmit through auto-publication, his annotations or otherwise defined recordings of Epictetus, due to others thieving publications.[11][33]

The Encheiridion is a short compendium of all Epictetus' philosophical principles. It is also known as a handbook, and accordingly A Mehl, professor at Martin Luther University c.2011, considers the Encheiridion as a vade mecum for Arrian. The Encheiridion is apparently a summary of the Discourses.[4][12][21][34][18]

According to George Long, Arrian noted from Epictetus' lectures for his private use and some time later made of these, the Discourses. Photius states that Arrian produced two books the Dissertations and the Discourses. The Discourses are also known as Diatribai and are apparently in fact a verbatim recording of Epictetus' lectures.[18][35][36]

JB Stockdale considered Arrian made eight books of which four were lost by the Middle Ages, of which the remaining were made to be the Discourses. In a comparison of the contents of the Encheiridion with the Discourses, it is apparent that the former contains material not present within the latter, suggesting an original lost source for the Encheiridion.[11][37][38]

Homiliai Epichtaeton (Ομιλίαι Έπικτήτου)

Friendly conversations with Epictetus is a 12 book work mentioned by Photius in his Bibliotheca, of which only fragments remain.[13][16]

Ta meta tou Alexandrou (τα μετ' Αλέξανδρον)

History of the Diadochi or Events after Alexander is a work originally of ten books, a commentary on this work was written by Photius (FW Walbank - p. 8).[21][39][2][40]

Three extant fragments are the Vatican Palimsest (of the 10th century AD), PSI 12.1284 (Oxyrhynchus), and the Gothenburg palimpsest (of the 10th century also), these possibly stemming originally from Photius.[2][2][2][13][41]

The writing is about the successors to Alexander III, circa 323 - 321 or 319, particularly certain events concerning the Achaemenid.[13][18][42]

Parthica

A lost work of seventeen books, fragments were maintained by the Suda and Stephen of Byzantium. The work survives only in states of adaptation made later by Photius and Syncellus. Translated, the title is History of the Parthians. Arrian's aim in the work, was to set forth events of the Parthian war of Trajan. The writing mentioned the Parthians trace their clan to Artaxerxes II.[43][22][42][44][45]

Bithyniaca

A work of eight books, Bibliotheca (Photius) states it is the fourth to have been written by Arrian.[22][46]

Nicomediensis Scripta minora

A work translated a Nicodemian script (minor).[47][48]

Indica ( Ινδικη )

Indica is a work on a variety of things pertaining to India, and the voyage of Nearchus in the Persian Gulf. The first part of Indica was based largely on the work of the same name of Megasthenes, the second part based on a journal written by Nearchos.[49][50][51][17]

Tekhne/Techne Taktika

Written 136/137 AD, (in the 20th year of Hadrian [6]), it is a treatise on Roman cavalry and military tactics, and includes information on the nature, arms and discipline of the phalanx. The hippika gymnasia is particularly a concern of Arrian in the writing.[22][52][53][54][55][56][57][58]

Another translation of the title is Ars tactica, in Greek is Τέχνη τακτική.[59][60]

Scholarly opinion of why Arrian' wrote this text is; for the provision of genuinely useful information per military tacticians, produced in mind of the occasion of Hadrian's vicenallia, and, or, written specifically to curry favour vis-á-vis Hadrian.[61][62]

Kynēgetikos (κυνηγετικός)

Cynegeticus, translated as the hunting man,[18] is a work about hunting dogs, canes venatici, the Celtic grey-hound.[63][19][64][65][66][67][68]

The work is based on an earlier exposition made by Xenophon, whom Arrian thought to be the authority on the subject of hunting.[69][70]

Ektaxis katà Alanon

A work of a now fragmentary nature, the title is translated as Deployment against the Alani or The order of battle against the Alans,or referred to simply as Alanica. It is thought not have been written as a presentation of facts but for literary reasons. Pertaining to the relevant historical fact though, while governor of Cappadocia Arrian had to command the repelling of an invasion of the Alani, sometime during 135 AD, a struggle in which Arrian' two legions were victorious.[71][72][20][50][73][74][75][76]

Arrian identified the particular means, he makes explicit, of pursuing warfare, as being based on Greek and Macedonian methods, within the work.[77][78][79]

Ektaxis katà Alanon is also translated as Acies Contra Alanos The work was known for a time as A History of the Alani ('Aλανικη or τά κατ' 'Aλανονς , via Photius [50]) a fragment describing a plan of battle contra the Alani was found in Milan c.17th century which was thought at that time to belong to the History.[80]

Arrian identified the particular means, he makes explicit, of pursuing warfare, as being based on Greek and Macedonian methods, within the work.[77][78][79]

biographical series

Monographs or biographies, including of Dio of Syracuse, Timoleon of Corinth, and Tilliborus, brigand or robber of the Asia minor, which are now lost.[81][82][83][84][85]

The Anabasis of Alexander

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Main article: The Anabasis of Alexander

The work comprises seven books.[13] Arrian used Xenophon' account of the March of Cyrus as the basis for this work.[86]

work of shared authorship

Tōn Epiktētou diatrivōn vivlia tessera was authored also with Epictetus.[87][88]

Sources, transmission, translations and publications

Everything known of his life derives from the 9th century writing of Photius in his Bibliotheca, and from those few references which exist within Arrian's writings. The knowledge of the fact of his attaining consularship, is in the least as a result of literature produced by Suidas. Arnobius (c.3rd century AD [89]) mentions Arrian. Arrian was also known of by Aulus Gellius. Pliny the Younger addressed seven of his epistles to him. Simplicius made a copy of the Encheridion, which was transmitted under the name of the monastic father Nilus,during the 5th century, and as a result found in every monastery library. in regards to him recording Epictetus' teachings.[13][90][4][91][11][92]

Nicholas Blancard (c.1669 Greek professor at Franekar) made translations of Arrian during 1663 and 1668.[93]

The voyage of Nearchus and Periplus of the Erythrean Sea were translated from the Greek by the then Dean of Westminster, William Vincent, and published 1809. Vincent published a commentary in 1797 on The voyage of Nearchus.The work was also translated into French by M.Billecocq, under the auspices of the government (c.f. - p. 321).[94]

Other works

Arrian's other works preserve the philosophy of Epictetus in Discourses of Epictetus (c. 108 AD), and include the Indica a description of Nearchus' voyage from India following Alexander's conquest, the Ars Tactica, and other short works.

References

  1. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  5. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "EL_Bowie" defined multiple times with different content
  7. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  8. ↑ FP Polo (Professor of Ancient History at the Departamento Ciencias Antigüedad at the Universidad de Zaragoza) - The Consul at Rome: The Civil Functions of the Consuls in the Roman Republic Cambridge University Press, 24 Feb 2011 ISBN 1139495992 [Retrieved 2015-04-04](ed. used p.1-3 to identify nature of < consulship >)
  9. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.(information was also retrieved during the 5th and 6th of April 2015)
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  15. ↑ Oxford Dictionnaries - attest , pupilage Oxford University Press [Retrieved 2015-04-05]
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.(.... Encheiridion a summary of the Discourses)
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.(ed. this the first source for < History of the Diadochi >)
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  23. ↑ Peter Beckford (... perhaps, the writing is slightly illegible) or a Country Squire - Essays on Hunting. Containing a philosophical enquiry into the nature and properties of the scent; observations on ... hounds ... also directions for the choice of a hunter, etc. ,extracted from “An Essay on Hunting, by a Country Squire,” published in 1733., With Six letters upon Hunting” by J. S. Gardiner., With an introduction by the editor, W. Blane etc. - p.xvii Southampton T.Baker and others 1781 [Retrieved 2015-04-02](ed. this source not the first source for ed. of this factor)
  24. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  25. ↑ definitions of paideia - Merriam-Webster , University Press [Retrieved 2015-04-05]
  26. ↑ Werner Jaeger - formerly of Harvard University and the Institute for Classical Studies (translated by Gilbert Highet)- Paideia: The Ideals of Greek Culture: II. In Search of the Divine Centre Volume 2 of Paideia: The Ideals of Greek Culture Oxford University Press, 23 Oct 1986 (reprint - 1st published 1943) ISBN 0195040473 [Retrieved 2015-04-05]
  27. ↑ Perseus Project: Latin Word Study Tool - paideia[Retrieved 2015-04-05]
  28. ↑ Oxford Dictionaries - - personage Oxford University Press [Retrieved 2015-04-05]
  29. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  30. ↑ S B Ferrario (see list of ref.) was the first source for FGrH 156
  31. ↑ Arrian's voyage round the Euxine Sea translated: and accompanied with a geographical dissertation, and maps J. Cook, 1805 [Retrieved 2015-3-31](ed. 1st source)
  32. ↑ William Thomas Lowndes - The bibliographer's manual of English literature, containing an account of rare, curious, and useful books, publ. in or relating to Great Britain and Ireland 1857 [Retrieved 2015-3-31](ed. not used in article)
  33. ↑ EL Bowie - Sage and Emperor: Plutarch, Greek Intellectuals, and Roman Power in the Time of Trajan (98-117 A.D.) (p.48) Leuven University Press, 1 Jan 2002 (edited by PA. Stadter, L. Van der Stockt - Professor of Greek language and literature at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven ) ISBN 9058672395 [Retrieved 2015-04-05]
  34. ↑ definitions of < vade mecum > Oxford University , Merriam-Webster [Retrieved 2015-04-05]
  35. ↑ George Long (British classical scholar. He held professorships in Greek and Latin at the University of London and the University of Virginia. -c.19th century) - Arrian : The Discourses of Epictetus - Special Edition (p.vii) Special Edition Books, 2010 ISBN 1934255319 [Retrieved 2015-04-05]
  36. ↑ Nathaniel Lardner - The works of Nathaniel Lardner, D.D. with a life by Dr. Kippis ... W. Bal, 1 Jan 1838 [Retrieved 2015-04-05]
  37. ↑ the late Vice Admiral JB Stockdale (previously a senior research fellow at the Hoover Institution) - Courage Under Fire: Testing Epictetus's Doctrines in a Laboratory of Human Behavior Hoover Press, 1 Jan 1993 ISBN 0817936920 [Retrieved 2015-04-05]
  38. ↑ KH Seddon - - Epictetus Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy [Retrieved 2015-04-06]
  39. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.(p.156 footnote 4 is the location of < τα μετ' Αλέξανδρον > (this source is the source of this) - the α grave of τα in the source was not available in the editorial characters provided by wikipedia)
  40. ↑ S B Ferrario (Associate Professor of Greek and Latin at The Catholic University of America c.2014) - Historical Agency and the `Great Man' in Classical Greece (p.6 footnote 17) Cambridge University Press, 2 Oct 2014 ISBN 1107037344 [Retrieved 2015-04-05](ed. this source used only for the addition of < Ta meta tou Alexandrou >)
  41. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  43. ↑ CG. Starr (Bentley Professor of History Emeritus at the University of Michigan) - A History of the Ancient World Oxford University Press, 1991 ISBN 0195066286 [Retrieved 2015-04-03](ed. supporting / secondary source for < lost >)
  44. ↑ J Wiesehofer (Professor of Ancient History at the Institut für Klassische Altertumskunde at the University of Kiel, Germany) - Ancient Persia (p.131 - the link opens p.133) I.B.Tauris, 18 Aug 2001 ISBN 1860646751 [Retrieved 2015-04-02]
  45. ↑ E. Yarshater - The Cambridge History of Iran: Seleucid Parthian (p.697) Cambridge University Press, 14 Apr 1983 ISBN 0521246938 [Retrieved 2015-04-03]
  46. ↑ LJ Sanders referencing AB Bosworth referencing Photius - The Legend of Dion (p.173 footnote 379) Dundurn, 15 Mar 2008 ISBN 1459710940 [Retrieved 2015-04-04]
  47. ↑ kobobooks store search ISBN 1990001706162 [Retrieved 2015-04-01](ed. 1st source)
  48. ↑ Arrianos, R Hercher - Nicomediensis Scripta minora (Latin) Publisher: Sumptibus et typis B.G . Teubneri 1854 (Book from the collections of: New York Public Library) [Retrieved 2015-04-01]
  49. ↑ Alexander the Great: The Anabasis and the Indica (p.227 onward) Translated by M Hammond Oxford University Press, 14 Feb 2013 ISBN 0199587248 [Retrieved 2015-04-01]
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.(ed. this source used for < Ινσικη >)
  51. ↑ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica (scroll down for a list of editors) Encyclopædia Britannica[Retrieved 2015-04-01](ed. this the 1st source of < Indica > for this ed.)
  52. ↑ AB Bosworth - Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Volume 81 - p.234 Harvard University Press, 1 Jan 1977 (edited by G. P. Goold - some time William Lampson Professor Emeritus of Latin Language and Literature, Yale University) ISBN 0674379284 [Retrieved 2015-04-02]
  53. ↑ P Sidnell (War Studies and History at King's College London where he gained a First Class degree and twice won the Simon Russell O'Dwyer prize for academic achievement) - Warhorse: Cavalry in Ancient Warfare (p.268) Bloomsbury Publishing, 10 Oct 2007 ISBN 0826421059 [Retrieved 2015-04-03](ed. < Roman cavalry > , this source being not the 1st contact for this piece of info)
  54. ↑ T E Rihll (Lecturer in the Department of Classics and Ancient History, University of Wales, Swansea since 1995) - Greek Science (p.84 footnote 11) Cambridge University Press, 11 Nov 1999 ISBN 0199223955 [Retrieved 2015-3-31](ed. 1st source for < Tekhne Taktica >)
  55. ↑ I Syvänne - The Age of Hippotoxotai: Art of War in Roman Military Revival and Disaster (491-636) Volume 994 of Acta Universitatis Tamperensis Tampere University Press, 2004 ISBN 9514459180 [Retrieved 2015-3-31](ed. verification)
  56. ↑ S Jamess (R Collins, F McIntosh) - Life in the Limes: Studies of the people and objects of the Roman frontiers - p.102 Oxbow Books, 31 Mar 2014 ISBN 1782972544 [Retrieved 2015-04-01]
  57. ↑ Edward Gibbon - The life of Edward Gibbon, by himself, with selections from his correspondence, and illustrustrated by the rev. H.H. Milman. To which is added, Essay on the study of literature p.100 footnote 22d Paris Baudry's European Library 1840 [Retrieved 2015-04-02]
  58. ↑ KR. Dixon, P Southern - The Roman Cavalry - p.126 onward Routledge, 11 Jan 2013 ISBN 1135114072 [Retrieved 2015-04-02]
  59. ↑ Perseus Tufts Latin Word Study Tool - texnh [Retrieved 2015-04-01](ed. < texnh > located at < JG DeVoto > in http://www.karwansaraypublishers.com/ - used in verification of Ars tactica as same work))
  60. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  61. ↑ M Peachin - Frontinus and the Curae of the Curator Aquarum (p.92 - footnote 21) Volume 39 of Heidelberger althistorische Beiträge und epigraphische Studien Franz Steiner Verlag, 2004 ISBN 3515086366 [Retrieved 2015-04-08]
  62. ↑ J Mancini - Vicennalia Treccani - La Cultura Italiana [Retrieved 2015-04-08](ed. this source used only to identify the nature of the word < vicennalia >)
  63. ↑ p.51 - Arrian on Coursing. The Cynegeticus of the Younger Xenophon ... with Classical and Practical Annotations, and a Brief Sketch of the Life and Writings of the Author ; To which is Added an Appendix Containing Some Account of the Canes Venatici of Classical Antiquity Bohn, 1831 [Retrieved 2015-3-31](ed. this was the first source for < Cynegeticus >)
  64. ↑ Delabere Pritchett Blaine - p.391 - An Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports: Or a Complete Account, Historical, Practical, and Descriptive, of Hunting, Shooting, Fishing, Racing, and Other Field Sports and Athletic Amusements of the Present Day, Volume 1 Longman, Orme, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1840 [Retrieved 2015-3-31]
  65. ↑ The Quarterly Review, Volume 118 John Murray, 1865 [Retrieved 2015-3-31]
  66. ↑ Thomas KEITH (Teacher of Mathematics.) - A new treatise on the use of the globes ... The sixth edition, corrected and improved 1824 [Retrieved 2015-3-31]
  67. ↑ AA Phillips - has practical experience of the kind of hunting described by the two classical authors, MM Willcock - Emeritus Professor of Latin at University College London - Xenophon and Arrian, On Hunting (Kynēgetikos) Aris & Phillips, 1 Jan 1999 ISBN 0856687057 [Retrieved 2015-04-04](ed. source of word < Kynēgetikos >
  68. ↑ M.I. Finley - Studies in Ancient Society (Routledge Revivals) (p.193) Routledge, 11 Jan 2013 ISBN 1136505644 [Retrieved 2015-04-04](ed. source for < κυνηγεττικός >)
  69. ↑ J.Mossman, F.Titchener - Virtues for the People: Aspects of Plutarchan Ethics (p.277) (edited by G Roskam - Professor of Greek language and literature at Katholieke Universiteit Leuven., L. Van der Stockt - Professor of Greek language and literature at Katholieke Universiteit Leuven and Honorary President of the International Plutarch Society.) Universitaire Pers Leuven, 2011 ISBN 905867858X [Retrieved 2015-04-04](ed. this source being not the first source for this fact for ed.)
  70. ↑ Oxford Dictionary - exposition Oxford University Press [Retrieved 2015-04-04]
  71. ↑ N. J. E. Austin (Senior Lecturer in Classics at Massey University, New Zealand), N. B. Rankov (Lecturer in Classics and Ancient History at Royal Holloway, University of London) - Exploratio: Military & Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople - p.4 Routledge, 1 Jun 2002 ISBN 1317593855 [Retrieved 2015-04-01]
  72. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.(the word < Deployment > in search criteria was taken from J. E. Lendon ISBN 0300119798 - p.267)
  73. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica[Retrieved 2015-04-01]
  74. ↑ Details of a publication (JG.DeVoto)[Retrieved 2015-04-01]
  75. ↑ P Southern - The Roman Army: A Social and Institutional History -p.24 Oxford University Press, 2007 ISBN 0195328787 [Retrieved 2015-04-02]
  76. ↑ D Hoyos (Honorary Associate Professor and research affiliate at Sydney University, Australia c.2013) - A Roman Army Reader: Twenty-One Selections from Literary, Epigraphic, and Other Documents (p.xliii) Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, 1 Oct 2013 ISBN 086516715X [Retrieved 2015-04-04]
  77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 J. E. Lendon (taught history at the University of Virginia c.2006) - Soldiers & Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity Yale University Press, 1 Aug 2006 ISBN 0300119798 [Retrieved 2015-04-04(ed. ascertained Lendon' - Deployment at this)
  78. ↑ 78.0 78.1 Oxford Dictionaries - explicit , explicate Oxford University Press [Retrieved 2015-04-04]
  79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 ICRC - Methods and means of warfare - 29-10-2010 Overview[Retrieved 2015-04-04](ed. used for clarity on concept < method of war > in J. E. Lendon)
  80. ↑ Perseus Digital Library - R Hercher, A. Eberhard, Ed.[Retrieved 2015-04-01]
  81. ↑ M.I. Finley - Studies in Ancient Society (Routledge Revivals)(p.193) Routledge, 11 Jan 2013 ISBN 1136505644 [Retrieved 2015-04-04](ed. this source the primary source)
  82. ↑ C Schrader - Concordantia in Flavii Arriani Indicam historiam Georg Olms Verlag, 1 Jan 1995 ISBN 3487100177 [Retrieved 2015-04-04](used as verification of primary, and used word < biography >)
  83. ↑ Oxford Dictionary - - monograph Oxford University Press [Retrieved 2015-04-04]
  84. ↑ EJ Chinnock - The Anabasis of Alexander[Retrieved 2015-04-04]
  85. ↑ L Boia (professor of history at the University of Bucharest)- Great Historians from Antiquity to 1800: An International Dictionary, Volume 1 Greenwood Press, 1 Jan 1989 ISBN 0313245177 (ed. first source for Tilliborus, found here (Retrieved 2015-04-04]
  86. ↑ Encyclopædia Iranica - Anabasis[Retrieved 2015-04-06]
  87. ↑ page number 3 of kobobooks store search [Retrieved 2015-04-01](ed. 1st source for title)
  88. ↑ Arrian, Epictetus , Adamantios Koraēs - Tōn Epiktētou diatrivōn vivlia tessera (Greek language) Book from the collections of: Oxford University [Retrieved 2015-04-01](ed. verification)
  89. ↑ MP Carroll - The Cult of the Virgin Mary: Psychological Origins (p.101) Princeton University Press, 1992 ISBN 0691028672 [Retrieved 2015-04-06]
  90. ↑ Fortescue, A. (1912) - The Catholic Encyclopedia - Suidas (ed. K Knight) New York: Robert Appleton Company [Retrieved 2015-04-06](ed. this source used to identify the nature of < Suidas > only)
  91. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  92. ↑ PLEASE SCROLL DOWN LIST ON OPENING LINK TO VIEW THIS SOURCE P Kelemen - El Greco Revisited: Candia, Venice, Toledo - Page 110 Macmillan, 1961 (176 pages) [Retrieved 2015-04-06]
  93. ↑ Alexander Chalmers - The General Biographical Dictionary: Containing an Historical and Critical Account of the Lives and Writings of the Most Eminent Persons in Every Nation: Particularly the British and Irish; from the Earliest Accounts to the Present Time, Volumes 5-6 - p.396-7 J. Nichols, 1812 [Retrieved 2015-04-02]
  94. ↑ The British Critic: A New Review, Volume 34 F. and C. Rivington, 1810 [Retrieved 2015-04-02]

Further reading

  • Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, translated by Aubrey de Sélincourt, Penguin Classics, 1958 and numerous subsequent editions.
  • Phillips, A.A., and M.M. Willcock, (eds.). Xenophon & Arrian On Hunting with Hounds. Cynegeticus. Oxford: Aris & Phillips, 1999. ISBN 0-85668-706-5.
  • P. A. Stadter, Arrian of Nicomedia, Chapel Hill, 1980.
  • R. Syme, 'The Career of Arrian', Harvard Studies in Classical Philology vol.86 (1982), pp. 171–211.
  • E. L. Wheeler, Flavius Arrianus: a political and military biography, Duke University, 1977.nn
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External links

Texts online
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