Spread of printing in the 15th century
European output of printed books from the 15th through the 18th century
The global spread of the printing press began with the invention of the printing press with movable type by Johannes Gutenberg in Mainz, Germany (circa 1439). Western printing technology was adopted in all world regions by the end of the 19th century, displacing the manuscript and block printing.
In the Western world, the operation of a press became synonymous with the enterprise of publishing and lent its name to a new branch of media, the press (see list of newspapers by date).[1]
Spread of the Gutenberg press
Germany
Modern stamp commemorating the
Gutenberg Bible, the first major European work printed by mechanical movable type
Gutenberg's first major print work was the 42-line Bible in Latin, printed probably between 1452 and 1454 in the German city of Mainz. After Gutenberg lost a lawsuit against his investor Johann Fust, Fust put Gutenberg's employee Peter Schöffer in charge of the print shop. Thereupon Gutenberg established a new one with the financial backing of another money lender. With Gutenberg's monopoly revoked, and the technology no longer secret, printing spread throughout Germany and beyond, diffused first by emigrating German printers, but soon also by foreign apprentices.
Europe
In rapid succession, printing presses were set up in Central and Western Europe. Major towns, in particular, functioned as centers of diffusion (Cologne 1466, Rome 1467, Venice 1469, Paris 1470, Kraków 1473, London 1477). In 1481, barely 30 years after the publication of the 42-line Bible, the small Netherlands already featured printing shops in 21 cities and towns, while Italy and Germany each had shops in about 40 towns at that time. According to one estimate, "by 1500 1000 printing presses were in operation throughout Western Europe and had produced 8 million books."[2] According to another, the output was in the order of twenty million volumes and rose in the 16th century tenfold to between 15 and 20 million copies.[3] Germany and Italy were considered the two main centres of printing in terms of quantity and quality.
Rest of the world
The near-simultaneous discovery of sea routes to the West (Christopher Columbus, 1492) and East (Vasco da Gama, 1498) and the subsequent establishment of trade links greatly facilitated the global spread of Gutenberg-style printing. Traders, colonists, but, perhaps most importantly, missionaries exported printing presses to the new European oversea domains, setting up new print shops and distributing printing material. In the Americas, the first extra-European print shop was founded in Mexico City in 1544 (1539?), and soon after Jesuits started operating the first printing press in Asia (Goa, 1556).
For a long time however, movable type printing remained mainly the business of Europeans working from within the confines of their colonies. According to Suraiya Faroqhi, lack of interest and religious reasons were among the reasons for the slow adoption of the printing press outside Europe: Thus, the printing of Arabic, after encountering strong opposition by Muslim legal scholars and the manuscript scribes, remained prohibited in the Ottoman empire between 1483 and 1729, initially even on penalty of death,[4][5] while some movable Arabic type printing was done by Pope Julius II (1503−1512) for distribution among Middle Eastern Christians,[6] and the oldest Qur’an printed with movable type was produced in Venice in 1537/1538 for the Ottoman market.
In India, reports are that Jesuits "presented a polyglot Bible to the Emperor Akbar in 1580 but did not succeed in arousing much curiosity."[7] But also practical reasons seem to have played a role. The English East India Company, for example, brought a printer to Surat in 1675, but was not able to cast type in Indian scripts, so the venture failed.[7]
North America saw the adoption by the Cherokee Indian Elias Boudinot who published the tribe's first newspaper Cherokee Phoenix from 1828, partly in his native language, using the Cherokee alphabet recently invented by his compatriot Sequoyah.
In the 19th century, the arrival of the Gutenberg-style press to the shores of Tahiti (1818), Hawaii (1821) and other Pacific islands, marked the end of a global diffusion process which had begun almost 400 years earlier. At the same time, the 'old style' press (as the Gutenberg model came to be termed in the 19th century), was already in the process of being displaced by industrial machines like the steam powered press (1812) and the rotary press (1833), which radically departed from Gutenberg's design, but were still of the same development line.[8]
Dates by location
The following represents a selection:[9]
Germany, Austria and German printers in Central Europe
Date |
City |
Printer |
Comment |
1452–53[10] |
Mainz |
Johannes Gutenberg, Peter Schöffer, Johann Fust (investor) |
Gutenberg Bible |
~1457[10] |
Bamberg |
Albrecht Pfister, Johann Sensenschmid (from 1480) |
Pfister: first woodcut book illustration c. 1461[11][12] |
Not later than 1460[10] |
Strassburg |
Johannes Mentelin[13] |
In 1605, Johann Carolus publishes the German Relation aller Fuernemmen und gedenckwuerdigen Historien (Collection of all distinguished and commemorable news), recognized by the World Association of Newspapers as the first newspaper.[14] |
~1465[10] |
Cologne |
Ulrich Zell[12] |
|
1468[10] |
Augsburg |
Günther Zainer[13] |
|
Not later than 1469[10] |
Nuremberg |
Johann Sensenschmidt, Johannes Regiomontanus (1472–75), Anton Koberger (1473–1513)[12] |
|
~1471[10] |
Speyer[12] |
|
|
~1472[10] |
Lauingen[15] |
|
|
1473[10] |
Esslingen am Neckar |
|
|
1473[10] |
Merseburg[15] |
|
|
1473[10] |
Ulm[15] |
|
|
~1473–74[10] |
Erfurt |
|
|
~1474[10] |
Lübeck[15] |
|
1488, Missale Aboense and other versions, first books for the Scandinavian and Finnish markets, by Bartholomeus Ghotan |
1475[16] |
Breslau (now Wrocław) |
Kasper Elyan of Glogau [17] |
Kasper's print shop remained operational until 1483 with an overall output of 11 titles.[16] |
1475[10] |
Trento |
|
|
~1475[10] |
Blaubeuren[15] |
|
|
~1475[10] |
Rostock[15] |
|
|
1476[10] |
Reutlingen |
|
|
~1478–79[10] |
Memmingen |
de (Albrecht Kunne)[18] |
|
1479[10] |
Würzburg[15] |
Georg Reyser |
|
1479[10] |
Magdeburg |
|
|
1480[10] |
Passau |
|
|
1480[10] |
Leipzig |
Andreas Friesner |
|
~1480[10] |
Eichstätt |
|
|
1482[10] |
Vienna |
Johann Winterburger[15] |
|
1482[10] |
Munich |
Johann Schauer |
|
~1482[10] |
Heidelberg[15] |
|
|
1484[10] |
Ingolstadt |
|
|
1485[10] |
Münster |
|
|
~1485[10] |
Regensburg |
|
|
1486[19] |
Schleswig |
Stephan Arndes |
|
~1486[10] |
Stuttgart |
|
|
~1488[10] |
Hamburg |
|
|
1489[10] |
Hagenau |
|
|
1491[10] |
Freiburg |
|
|
1492[10] |
Marienburg |
Jakob Karweyse |
Only two editions printed[20] |
Rest of Europe
Italy
Date |
City |
Printer |
Comment |
1465[21] |
Subiaco |
Arnold Pannartz, Konrad Sweynheym |
|
1467[21] |
Rome |
Ulrich Hahn, Arnold Pannartz, Konrad Sweynheym (from 1467) |
|
1469[21] |
Venice |
Johann von Speyer, shortly afterwards Nikolaus Jenson from Tours, Aldus Manutius |
Johann was granted a privilege for 5 years for movable type printing by the Senate, but died soon after.[22] In 1501, Ottaviano Petrucci produced the first book of sheet music printed from movable type. |
1470[21] |
Milan |
Filippo de Lavagna, Antonio Zaroto, shortly afterwards Waldarfer von Regensburg |
|
1470[21] |
Naples |
|
|
1471[21] |
Florence |
Demetrius Damilas |
Earliest printing in Greek |
1471[21] |
Genoa |
|
|
1471[10] |
Ferrara |
|
|
1471[21] |
Bologna |
|
Probably in 1477, claimed to have the first engraved illustrations,[23] although the 1476 Boccaccio edition by Colard Mansion in Bruges already had copper engravings[24] |
1471[10] |
Padua |
|
|
1471[10] |
Treviso |
|
|
1472[10] |
Parma |
|
|
1473[10] |
Pavia |
|
|
1473[10] |
Brescia |
|
|
~1473–74[10] |
Modena |
|
|
1484[10] |
Siena |
|
|
In the 15th century, printing presses were established in 77 Italian cities and towns. At the end of the following century, 151 locations in Italy had seen at one time printing activities, of which 130 (86%) were north of Rome.[25] During these two centuries a total of 2894 printers were active in Italy, with only 216 of them located in southern Italy. Ca. 60% of the Italian printing shops were situated in six cities (Venice, Rome, Milan, Naples, Bologna and Florence), with the concentration of printers in Venice being particularly high (ca. 30%).[26]
Switzerland
France
Apart from the cities above, there was a small number of lesser towns which set up printing presses.
Spain
Belgium
The Netherlands
In 1481, printing was already done in 21 towns and cities.
Hungary
In the 16th century, a total of 20 print shops were active in 30 different places in Hungary, as some of them were moving several times due to political instability.[32]
Poland
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In the 15th and 16th centuries printing presses were also established in Poznań, Lwów, Brześć Litewski and Vilnius.[16]
Bohemia
Date |
City |
Printer |
Comment |
~1475–76[10] |
Pilsen |
Mikuláš Bakalář (name known since 1488) |
Statuta Ernesti (1476, Latin), The New Testament (1476, two editions in Czech), Passionale, The Chronicle of Troyes (? 1476, Czech) |
1486[10] |
Brünn |
Conradus Stahel, Matthias Preinlein |
Agenda Olomucensis 1486 and further 20, partly small prints in Latin until 1488.[35] |
1487[10] |
Prague |
|
The Chronicle of Troyes 1487, Psalter 1487, The Bible 1488 (all in Czech); since 1512 printing in Hebrew, since 1517 in Cyrillic, too. |
1489[10] |
Kuttenberg |
Martin z Tišnova |
The Bible (in Czech) |
England
Date |
City |
Printer |
Comment |
1476[36] |
Westminster |
William Caxton |
The first dated prints in England are an indulgence dating to 13 December 1476 (date written in by hand), and the Dicts or Sayings, completed on 18 November 1477. Between 1472 and 1476, Caxton had already published several English works on the continent (see Bruges above).[36] |
1478[10] |
Oxford |
Theoderich Rood |
|
~1479[10] |
St Albans |
'Schoolmaster' |
The St Albans Press produced eight known prints including The Chronicles of England.[10] |
1480[10] |
London |
John Lettou, William Machlinia, Wynkyn de Worde |
|
Denmark
Date |
City |
Printer |
Comment |
1482[19] |
Odense |
Johann Snell |
Snell was the first to introduce printing both in Denmark and Sweden.[19] |
1493[19] |
Copenhagen |
Gottfried von Ghemen |
Von Ghemen published in Copenhagen from 1493 to 1495 and from 1505 to 1510. In the meantime, he was active in the Dutch town of Leiden. For 200 years, official policy confined printing in Denmark largely to Copenhagen.[37] |
Sweden
Portugal
Date |
City |
Printer |
Comment |
1487[38] |
Faro |
Samuel Gacon (also called Porteiro) |
The country's first printed book was the Hebrew Pentateuch, published by the Jew Samuel Gacon in southern Portugal, after having fled from the Spanish Inquisition.[38] |
1488[39] |
Chaves [39] |
Unknown [39] |
According to the German scholar Horch the Sacramental is the first book printed in Portuguese, and not Ludolphus de Saxonia's Livro de Vita Christi of 1495 as previously assumed.[39] |
1489[10] |
Lisboa |
Rabbi Zorba, Raban Eliezer |
|
1492[10] |
Leiria |
|
|
1494[10] |
Braga |
|
|
1536 |
Coimbra |
|
|
1571 |
Viseu |
|
|
1583 |
Angra do Heroísmo, Azores |
|
|
1622 |
Oporto |
|
|
Croatia
Serbia and Montenegro
Date |
City |
Printer |
Comment |
1493–94[10] |
Cetinje |
Đurađ IV Crnojević, Makarije |
Đurađ IV Crnojević used the printing press brought to Cetinje by his father Ivan I Crnojević to print the first books in southeastern Europe, in 1493. The Crnojević printing press operated from 1493 through 1496, turning out religious books of which five have been preserved: Oktoih prvoglasnik, Oktoih petoglasnik, Psaltir, Molitvenik and Četvorojevanđelje (the first Bible in Serbian language). Đurađ managed the printing of the books, wrote prefaces and afterwords, and developed sophisticated tables of Psalms with the lunar calendar. The books from the Crnojević press were printed in two colors, red and black, and were richly ornamented. They served as models for many of the subsequent books printed in Cyrillic. |
1537 |
village Vrutci of Rujno Župa near Užice, |
hieromonk Teodosije |
The Rujan Four Gospels of the Rujno Monastery printing house |
1552[27] |
Belgrade |
Trojan Gundulić |
Četvorojevanđelje, Serbulje |
By 1500, the cut-off point for incunabula, 236 towns in Europe had presses, and it is estimated that twenty million books had been printed for a European population of perhaps seventy million.[11]
Scotland
Romania
Greece
Lithuania and Belarus
Iceland
Date |
City |
Printer |
Comment |
ca. 1530[49] |
Holar |
Jon Matthiasson (Swede) |
Press imported on the initiative of Bishop Jon Arason. First known local print is the Latin songbook Breviarium Holense of 1534.[49] |
Norway
Ireland
Date |
City |
Printer |
Comment |
1551 |
? |
Humphrey Powell |
|
Russia
Until the reign of Peter the Great printing in Russia remained confined to the print office established by Fedorov in Moscow. In the 18th century, annual printing output gradually rose from 147 titles in 1724 to 435 (1787), but remained constrained by state censorship and widespread illiteracy.[52]
Latvia
Date |
City |
Printer |
Comment |
1588 |
Riga |
Nikolaus Mollin |
|
Ukraine
Estonia
Date |
City |
Printer |
Comment |
1632 |
Tartu |
Jacobus Pistorius (Jacob Becker) |
PostOrdnung (28.09.1632) was the first document printed in Tartu with date and printers name. The printing press operated in connection with Tartu University (Academia Gustaviana) that was opened on the same year. The reverse side of the document contains a resolution of Johan Skytte about Academia Gustaviana.[53] |
Finland
Georgia
Date |
City |
Printer |
Comment |
1701 |
Tbilisi |
Mihail Ishtvanovitch |
|
Armenia
<templatestyles src="Module:Hatnote/styles.css"></templatestyles>
Date |
City |
Printer |
Comment |
1771 |
Vagharshapat |
St. Grigor Lusavorich |
Simeon Yerevantsi (Catholicos of Armenia) |
The first published book in Etchmiadzin was titled Սաղմոսարան (Psalms).[54] The printing house was St. Grigor Lusavorich. |
The first book which had Armenian letters was published in Mainz (Germany) in 1486. The first Armenian book to be published by the printing press was Urbatagirq—Book of Friday prayers—which was published by Hakob Meghapart in Venice in 1512.
Greenland
Date |
City |
Printer |
Comment |
1860 |
Godthaab |
|
|
Latin America
Mexico
Peru
Guatemala
Paraguay
Date |
City |
Printer |
Comment |
1700[55] |
Jesuit mission of Paraguay |
|
Established with local materials by local Guaraní workers who had converted to Christianity.[55] |
Cuba
Colombia
Ecuador
Chile
Argentina
Uruguay
Brazil
Venezuela
Africa
Date |
City |
Country |
Printer |
Comment |
1494 |
|
São Tomé and Príncipe |
Valentim Fernandes |
Early German printers[61] Dubious: has made a map of Sao Tomé, but seems to have been printing in Lisbon, not in Africa. No evidence of any works printed in Africa. |
1516 |
Fez |
Morocco |
Jewish |
Refugees who had worked for the printer Rabbi Eliezer Toledano in Lisbon[62] |
As early as 16th century |
|
Mozambique |
Portuguese |
|
|
Luanda |
Angola |
Portuguese |
|
|
Malindi |
Kenya |
Portuguese |
|
1795 |
Cape Town |
South Africa |
Johann Christian Ritter
German |
Almanach voor't jaar 1796.[63][64] The possibility of printing may be as early as 1784 when Ritter arrived in the Cape but no earlier output has surfaced.[65]:facing p.157 p.160 Ritter is also said to have printed Almanacs for 1795 to 1797 suggesting a start to printing of 1794.[66] |
1798 |
Cairo |
Egypt |
French |
|
c.1825 |
|
Madagascar |
|
|
1833 |
|
Mauritius |
|
|
1855[67] |
Scheppmansdorf
(now: Rooibank) |
Namibia |
Franz Heinrich Kleinschmidt |
On 29 June 1855, Protestant missionary Kleinschmidt published 300 copies of Luther's catechism in the Nama language which represent the first printed works in that tongue. Political unrest seems to have prevented further printing activities. The press was reported as being functional as late as 1868, but whether printing was resumed is unknown.[67] |
1892 |
Salisbury |
Southern Rhodesia
(now: Zimbabwe) |
|
Rhodesia Herald in print, may have started earlier [65]:169 |
South Asia
Ottoman Empire
Date |
City |
Printer |
Comment |
Dec 13th, 1493 |
Istanbul |
David and Samuel ibn Nahmias, Hebrew |
First ever printed book in Ottoman Empire was Arba'ah Turim in Hebrew.[69] Some argue the year and suggest 1503 or 1504[69] |
1519—1523 |
the Church of Saint George in Sopotnica, Sanjak of Herzegovina, Ottoman Empire (today village in Novo Goražde, Republic of Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina). The books were printed in Church Slavonic of the Serbian recension. |
Božidar Goraždanin |
hieratikon (1519), psalter (1521) and a small euchologion (1523) |
1554 |
Bursa |
|
|
1567 |
Constantinople |
Apkar Tebir, Armenian |
The first book printed here was Փոքր քերականութիւն (Poqr Qerakanutyun - Brief Armenian Grammar) in Armenian |
1584 |
St. Antonius Monastery, Qozhaya, Lebanon |
|
Introduced by Maronite Patriarch Sergius ar-Rezzi, psalter was printed the first time in 1585 |
1610 |
St. Antonius Monastery, Qozhaya, Lebanon |
|
Second printing press set up by Christian Maronites in Lebanon |
1734 |
Monastery of St. John, Khenchara, Lebanon |
|
First printing press in Arabic |
1729[70] |
Constantinople |
Ibrahim Muteferrika |
First press for printing in Arabic established in the Ottoman Empire, against opposition from the calligraphers and parts of the Ulama. It operated until 1742, producing altogether seventeen works, all of which were concerned with non-religious, utilitarian matters.[71] |
1759 |
Smyrna (Izmir) |
Markos, Armenian |
|
1779[72] |
Constantinople |
James Mario Matra (Briton) |
Abortive attempt to revive printing in the Ottoman lands[72] |
Due to religious qualms, Sultan Bayezid II and successors prohibited printing in Arabic script in the Ottoman empire from 1483 on penalty of death, but printing in other scripts was done by Jews as well as the Greek and Armenian communities (1515 Saloniki, 1554 Bursa (Adrianople), 1552 Belgrade, 1658 Smyrna). In 1727, Sultan Achmed III gave his permission for the establishment of the first legal print house for printing secular works in Arabic script (religious publications still remained forbidden),[71] but printing activities did not really take off until the 19th century.
Southeast Asia
Date |
City |
Country |
Printer |
Comment |
1590 |
Manila |
Philippines |
|
|
1668 |
Batavia |
Indonesia |
|
|
1818 |
Sumatra Island |
Indonesia |
|
|
East Asia
Date |
City |
Country |
Printer |
Comment |
1590 |
Nagasaki |
Japan |
Alessandro Valignano |
The Jesuits in Nagasaki established The Jesuit Mission Press in Japan and printed a number of books in romanised Japanese language. |
1833[73] |
Macao |
China |
|
The first presses were imported by Western priests for their missionary work from Europe and America. The earliest known, an albion press, was set up in the Portuguese colony Macao and later moved to Canton and Ningbo.[73] |
1883[74] |
Seoul |
Korea |
Inoue Kakugoro (Japanese) |
The first printing press was imported from Japan for publishing Korea's first Korean-language newspaper Hansong Sunbo. After the press was destroyed by conservatists, Inoue returned with a new one from Japan, reviving the paper as a weekly under the name Hansong Chubo. Presses were also established in Seoul in 1885, 1888 and 1891 by Western missionaries.[74] However, the earliest printing press was apparently introduced by the Japanese in the treaty port of Pusan in 1881 to publish Korea's first newspaper, the bilingual Chosen shinpo.[75] |
Middle East
Date |
City |
Country |
Printer |
Comment |
1584 |
Qozhaya |
Lebanon |
Patriarch Sergius el Rezzi |
First printing press in Middle East, introduced by Maronite Christians in St. Antonius Monastery, psalter was printed the first time in 1585 |
1610 |
Qozhaya |
Lebanon |
St. Antonius Monastery |
Second printing press introduced into monastery |
1734 |
Khenchara, Metn |
Lebanon |
Abdallah el Zakher |
First Arabic printing press. Monastery of St. John of Chouweir |
1636 |
New Julfa, Isfahan |
Persia |
Khachatur Kesaratsi, Armenian |
The first book printed here was Սաղմոս ի Դավիթ (Saghmos i Davit - Psalter) in Armenian |
1820 |
Tehran |
Persia |
|
Tabriz |
Persia |
North America
Australia & Oceania
Date |
City |
Country |
Printer |
Comment |
1795 |
? |
Australia |
|
|
1802 |
Sydney |
Australia |
George Howe |
|
1818 |
Hobart, Tasmania |
Australia |
|
|
1818 |
Tahiti |
French Polynesia |
|
|
1821 |
Hawaii |
Kingdom of Hawaii |
|
|
1835 |
Paihia |
New Zealand |
William Colenso |
The first book was a Maori translation of part of the Bible commissioned by the Church Missionary Society: "Ko nga Pukapuka o Paora te Apotoro ki te Hunga o Epeha o Piripai" (The Epistles of St Paul to the Philippians and the Ephesians). |
1836 |
Maui |
Kingdom of Hawaii |
|
|
See also
References
- ↑ Weber 2006, p. 387: <templatestyles src="Template:Blockquote/styles.css" />
At the same time, then, as the printing press in the physical, technological sense was invented, 'the press' in the extended sense of the word also entered the historical stage. The phenomenon of publishing was born.
- ↑ E. L. Eisenstein: "The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe", Cambridge, 1993 pp. 13–17, quoted in: Angus Maddison: "Growth and Interaction in the World Economy: The Roots of Modernity", Washington 2005, p.17f.
- ↑ Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean (1976): "The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450–1800", London: New Left Books, quoted in: Anderson, Benedict: "Comunidades Imaginadas. Reflexiones sobre el origen y la difusión del nacionalismo", Fondo de cultura económica, Mexico 1993, ISBN 978-968-16-3867-2, pp. 58f.
- ↑ Suraiya Faroqhi, Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire, pp, 134-136, I.B.Tauris, 2005, ISBN 1-85043-760-2, ISBN 978-1-85043-760-4;The Encyclopaedia of Islam: Fascicules 111-112 : Masrah Mawlid, Clifford Edmund Bosworth
- ↑ Watson 1968, p. 435; Clogg 1979, p. 67
- ↑ Krek 1979, p. 203
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Angus Maddison: Growth and Interaction in the World Economy: The Roots of Modernity, Washington 2005, p.65
- ↑ Bolza 1967; Gerhardt 1971; Gerhardt 1978, p. 217
- ↑ The main source is Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, 4th edition, 1888–1890, entry "Buchdruckerkunst (Ausbreitung der Erfindung)"
- ↑ 10.000 10.001 10.002 10.003 10.004 10.005 10.006 10.007 10.008 10.009 10.010 10.011 10.012 10.013 10.014 10.015 10.016 10.017 10.018 10.019 10.020 10.021 10.022 10.023 10.024 10.025 10.026 10.027 10.028 10.029 10.030 10.031 10.032 10.033 10.034 10.035 10.036 10.037 10.038 10.039 10.040 10.041 10.042 10.043 10.044 10.045 10.046 10.047 10.048 10.049 10.050 10.051 10.052 10.053 10.054 10.055 10.056 10.057 10.058 10.059 10.060 10.061 10.062 10.063 10.064 10.065 10.066 10.067 10.068 10.069 10.070 10.071 10.072 10.073 10.074 10.075 10.076 10.077 10.078 10.079 10.080 10.081 10.082 10.083 10.084 10.085 10.086 10.087 10.088 10.089 10.090 10.091 10.092 10.093 10.094 10.095 10.096 10.097 10.098 10.099 10.100 10.101 10.102 10.103 10.104 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Fernand Braudel, "Civilization & Capitalism, 15–18th Centuries, Vol 1: The Structures of Everyday Life", William Collins & Sons, London 1981
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ World Association of Newspapers: "Newspapers: 400 Years Young!"
- ↑ 15.00 15.01 15.02 15.03 15.04 15.05 15.06 15.07 15.08 15.09 15.10 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Wydra 1987, p. 89
- ↑ Joachim Köhler (ed.): Geschichte des christlichen Lebens im schlesischen Raum, LIT Verlag Münster, 2002, ISBN 978-3-8258-5007-4, p. 404
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 Dal 1987, p. 37
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 Wydra 1987, pp. 88f.
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 21.7 Borsa 1976, p. 313
- ↑ Helmut Schippel: Die Anfänge des Erfinderschutzes in Venedig, in: Uta Lindgren (Hrsg.): Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800 bis 1400. Tradition und Innovation, 4th ed., Berlin 2001, p.540f. ISBN 3-7861-1748-9
- ↑ David Landau & Peter Parshall, The Renaissance Print, Yale, p241, 1996, ISBN 0-300-06883-2
- ↑ Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris
- ↑ Borsa 1976, p. 314
- ↑ Borsa 1977, pp. 166–169
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.5 27.6 27.7 27.8 27.9 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Unesco Bulletin for Libraries: Volume: XXVI, - PAGE: 137
- ↑ Publishers and booksellers in Hungary - PAGE: 7 (University of California)
- ↑ Borsa 1987, p. 107
- ↑ Wydra 1987, p. 88
- ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 The European Library
- ↑ E. Urbánková, Soupis prvotisků českého původu. Praha: SK ČSR 1986
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 Blake 1978, p. 43
- ↑ Dal 1987, pp. 37f.
- ↑ 38.0 38.1 Horch 1987, p. 125
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 Horch 1987, p. 132
- ↑ http://demo.ctk-rijeka.hr/Kosinj/Povijest.htm
- ↑ http://www.matica.hr/vijenac/449/%C5%A0imun%20Ko%C5%BEi%C4%8Di%C4%87%20Benja%20i%20njegova%20glagoljska%20tiskara%20u%20Rijeci%20/
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ I. Bianu, Psaltirea Scheiana, Bucharest, 1889
- ↑ Istoria Romaniei, Vol II, p. 684
- ↑ Borsa 1987, p. 106
- ↑ 49.0 49.1 Kvaran 1997, p. 140
- ↑ 50.0 50.1 Appel 1987, p. 95
- ↑ Appel 1987, p. 97
- ↑ Appel 1987, pp. 96ff.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Armenology Research National Center
- ↑ 55.00 55.01 55.02 55.03 55.04 55.05 55.06 55.07 55.08 55.09 55.10 55.11 55.12 Hensley C. Woodbridge & Lawrence S. Thompson, "Printing in Colonial Spanish America", Troy, N.Y., Whitson Publishing Company, 1976, quoted in: Hortensia Calvo, "The Politics of Print: The Historiography of the Book in Early Spanish America", Book History, Vol. 6, 2003, pp. 277–305 (278)
- ↑ 56.0 56.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Magdalena Chocano Mena, "Colonial Printing and Metropolitan Books: Printed Texts and the Shaping of Scholarly Culture in New Spain: 1539–1700", Colonial Latin American Historical Review 6, No. 1 (1997): 71–72, quoted in: Hortensia Calvo, "The Politics of Print: The Historiography of the Book in Early Spanish America", Book History, Vol. 6, 2003, pp. 277–305 (296)
- ↑ Magdalena Chocano Mena, "Colonial Printing and Metropolitan Books: Printed Texts and the Shaping of Scholarly Culture in New Spain: 1539–1700", Colonial Latin American Historical Review 6, No. 1 (1997): 73&76, quoted in: Hortensia Calvo, "The Politics of Print: The Historiography of the Book in Early Spanish America", Book History, Vol. 6, 2003, pp. 277–305 (279)
- ↑ Pedro Guibovich, "The Printing Press in Colonial Peru: Production Process and Literary Categories in Lima, 1584–1699", Colonial Latin American Review 10, No. 2 (2001): 173, quoted in: Hortensia Calvo, "The Politics of Print: The Historiography of the Book in Early Spanish America", Book History, Vol. 6, 2003, pp. 277–305 (296)
- ↑ Brown University: Impressão Régia in Rio de Janeiro
- ↑ Ferdinand Geldner, Die Deutschen Inkunabeldrucker, Vol. 2, Stuttgart, 1970, p. 314, quoted in: Man 2002
- ↑ History of Science-Printing, accessed 2009/05/04
- ↑ , Early Cape Printing 1796–1802, South African Library Reprint Series, No. 1, South African Library, Cape Town, (1971)
- ↑ SH Steinberg, Five Hundred Years of Printing, Penguin Books, Middlesex, (1955) 2nd ed. 1961, p.214
- ↑ 65.0 65.1 , "South Africa in Print", Book Exhibition Committee van Riebeeck Festival, Cape Town, (1952)
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ 67.0 67.1 Walter Moritz, "Die Anfänge des Buchdrucks in Südwestafrika/Namibia", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch, Vol. 1979 (1979), pp.269–276
- ↑ Printing in Goa
- ↑ 69.0 69.1 Naim A. Güleryüz, Bizans'tan 20. Yüzyıla - Türk Yahudileri, Gözlem Gazetecilik Basın ve Yayın A.Ş., İstanbul, January 2012, p.90 ISBN 978-9944-994-54-5
- ↑ Watson 1968, p. 436; Clogg 1979, p. 67
- ↑ 71.0 71.1 Watson 1968, p. 436
- ↑ 72.0 72.1 Clogg 1979, p. 67
- ↑ 73.0 73.1 Reed, Christopher A.: Gutenberg in Shanghai: Chinese Print Capitalism, 1876–1937, University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver 2005, ISBN 0-7748-1041-6, pp. 25–87 (69)
- ↑ 74.0 74.1 McGovern 1967, pp. 21–23
- ↑ Altman 1984, pp. 685–696
- ↑ 76.0 76.1 76.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
Sources
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Further reading
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On the effects of Gutenberg's printing
- Eisenstein, Elizabeth L., The Printing Press as an Agent of Change, Cambridge University Press, September 1980, Paperback, 832 pages, ISBN 0-521-29955-1
- McLuhan, Marshall, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1962) Univ. of Toronto Press (1st ed.); reissued by Routledge & Kegan Paul, ISBN 0-7100-1818-5
- Febvre, Lucien & Martin, Henri-Jean, The Coming of the Book: the impact of printing 1450–1800, Verso, London & New York, 1990, ISBN 0-86091-797-5
External links