Literary topos

In classical Greek rhetoric, topos, pl. topoi, (from Ancient Greek: τόπος "place", elliptical for Ancient Greek: τόπος κοινός tópos koinós, 'common place'), in Latin locus (from locus communis), refers to a method for developing arguments. (See topoi in classical rhetoric.)

Meaning and history

The topos, or more often the topoi, have been the subject of changing and sometimes contradictory definitions over the centuries. The topos belongs to the invention of rhetoric. Aristotle defined it as propositions expressing general or primary truths, admitted by everyone, confirmed by conscience and common sense.

In classical rhetoric, topoi, as part of inventio, are general points of view from which arguments can be drawn. (Quintilian: "sedes argumentorum, in quibus latent, ex quibus sunt petenda"). Cicero wrote a treatise, the Topica, to summarize his understanding of the eight works of the same name written by Aristotle. For Aristotle, the topics are a repertory of topoi, while the topica is the method allowing us to start from generally accepted, and therefore plausible, premises in order to deduce, by syllogism and more often by enthymeme, convincing conclusions.

The origin of a person or the time of an action are topoi if they say something typical about them. Aristotle conceives of the term topos as having a spectrum of functions: both heuristic (as a locus of search), argumentative (as an impetus to an argument), and rhetorical (as part of the speech itself). His less systematic instructions for locating the topos entered late antique and medieval Latin rhetorics (Matthew of Vendôme, John of Garland) and attained particular importance in the period of humanism (Erasmus of Rotterdam, Philip Melanchthon) as well as their flowering in the Baroque. Latin as well as vernacular rhetorics (such as Harsdörffer's Poetischer Trichter) made the finding of topoi and their poetic execution their genuine subject. Collections of such topoi emerged and led to their solidification into firmly established clichés, into set pieces, into conventional truisms.

Examples include the topos of the "wicked stepmother" and the "lovely place" (lat. locus amoenus) in nature where the action temporarily pauses. Michèle Weil defines it as "a recurrent narrative configuration ". In prologues, the modesty topos was rarely absent, often combined with the topical request that the dedicatee improve the errors, decide on the worthiness of publication, and, if necessary, protect the work against malicious critics. In the rarest of cases, the modesty topos corresponds to an actual lack of ability on the part of the author. On the contrary, it should be understood as a signal that the author is willing to make every effort to meet the highest quality standards.

A typical topos of the ancient Greek and Latin novel is that of the double dream. It is found in Chariton, Longus, Heliodorus, Achilles Tatius, and also in Apuleius. "Often they are prophetic dreams, in which the divinities give warnings or predict the future. In Longus, Eros and the Nymphs appear, in Heliodorus, Apollo and Artemis, in Achilles Tatius, Aphrodite, in Apuleius, Isis and — probably — also Osiris. A theme often parodied later, notably by Petronius, it also still exists in the modern novel in its serious form, notably in Arthur Schnitzler's Dream Story, a story entirely centered on the theme of the double dream. The same is true of the theme of apparent death (Scheintod in German), which is common in Greek novels and is often followed by the burial of someone still alive. This topos often concerns a woman who is buried alive. It appears in Chariton, in whose story Callirhoe is buried alive and then freed by the pirate Theron. In Achilles Tatius, Leucippé is placed still alive in a sarcophagus. In Xenophon of Ephesus, Anthia wakes up in a tomb, and when thieves enter, she asks them to respect her chastity. Petronius parodies this topos in the tale of The Matron of Ephesus, inserted in his Satyricon.

Topos is translated variously as "topic", "line of argument", or "commonplace". Ernst Robert Curtius studied topoi as "commonplaces", themes common to orators and writers who re-worked them according to occasion, e.g., in classical antiquity the observation that "all must die" was a topos in consolatory oratory, for in facing death the knowledge that death comes even to great men brings comfort. Curtius also discussed the topoi in the invocation of nature (sky, seas, animals, etc.) for various rhetorical purposes, such as witnessing to an oath, rejoicing or praising God, or mourning with the speaker.

The term topos or place plays a special role in Japanese philosophy. At the beginning of the 20th century, Nishida Kitarō tried to oppose the dominant subject-object dualism of Western philosophy with the term basho (for topos, place) and to introduce an alternative philosophical concept as bashoron (doctrine of place, topology). This approach was taken up by other philosophers after Nishida and led to a "spatial turn" in philosophy, but also in the related humanities, such as sociology or cultural studies.

See also

• Argumentation scheme
• Trope (literature)

Further reading

• Meiner, Carsten; Frederik Tygstrup (2007). "Le Défi de la Topologie Littéraire," Revue Romane, Vol. XLII, No. 2,, p. 177–87.
• Trousson, Raymond (1981). Thèmes et Mythes Littéraires. Bruxelles: Éditions de l'Université de Bruxelles.

External links

• The dictionary definition of topos at Wiktionary