Open-mid back unrounded vowel

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Open-mid back unrounded vowel
ʌ
IPA number 314
Encoding
Entity (decimal) ʌ
Unicode (hex) U+028C
X-SAMPA V
Kirshenbaum V
Braille ⠬ (braille pattern dots-346)
Sound

The open-mid back unrounded vowel, or low-mid back unrounded vowel, is a type of vowel sound, used in some spoken languages. Acoustically it is an open-mid back-central unrounded vowel.[1] The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ʌ⟩, graphically a rotated lowercase vee (called a turned V, though it was created as a small-capital ⟨ᴀ⟩ without the crossbar), and both the symbol and the sound are commonly referred to as either a wedge, a caret, or a hat. In transcriptions for some languages (including Danish and several dialects of English), this symbol is also used for the near-open central vowel.

The IPA prefers the terms "close" and "open" for vowels, and the name of the article follows this. However, linguists[who?] are known to use the terms "high" and "low".

Features

IPA vowel chart
Front Near-​front Central Near-​back Back
Close
Blank vowel trapezoid.svg
•iy
•ɨʉ
•ɯu
•ɪʏ
•eø
•ɘɵ
•ɤo
•ɛœ
•ɜɞ
•ʌɔ
•æ
•aɶ
•ɑɒ
Near-close
Close-mid
Mid
Open-mid
Near-open
Open
Paired vowels are: unrounded • rounded
This table contains phonetic symbols, which may not display correctly in some browsers. [Help]
IPA help • IPA key • chart • Loudspeaker.svg chart with audio • view

Occurrence

Language Word IPA Meaning Notes
English Cape Town[2] lot [lʌ̟t] 'lot' Near-back.[2] It corresponds to a weakly rounded [ɒ̈] in all other South African dialects.
Natal[2]
Cardiff[3] thought [θʌ̟ːt] 'thought' Near-back,[3] for some speakers it may be rounded and closer. See English phonology
Cockney[4] no [nʌ̟ː] 'no, nah' Near-back,[4] often a diphthong. It corresponds to /əʊ̯/ in other dialects. See English phonology
General South African[5] [nʌː] May be a diphthong [ʌʊ̯] instead.[6]
Inland Northern American[7] gut About this sound [ɡʌt] (help·info) 'gut' In most dialects, fronted to [ɜ], or fronted and lowered to [ɐ]. See English phonology and Northern Cities Vowel Shift
Multicultural London[8]
Newfoundland[9]
Older Received Pronunciation
Philadelphia[10]
Scottish[11]
German Chemnitz dialect[12] machen [ˈmʌχɴ̩] 'to do' Allophone of /ʌ, ʌː/ (which phonetically are central [ɜ, ɜː])[13] before and after /ŋ, kʰ, k, χ, ʁ/. Exact backness varies; it is most posterior before /χ, ʁ/.[14] See Chemnitz dialect phonology
Haida[15] [qʰwʌʔáːj] 'the rock' Allophone of /a/ (sometimes also /aː/) after uvular and epiglottal consonants.[16]
Irish Ulster dialect[17] ola [ʌl̪ˠə] 'oil' See Irish phonology
Kaingang[18] [ˈɾʌ] 'mark' Varies between back [ʌ] and central [ɜ].[19]
Korean[20] 별/byeol [pjʌl] 'star' See Korean phonology
Lillooet [example needed] Retracted counterpart of /ə/.
Tamil[21] [example needed] Nasalized. Phonetic realization of the sequence /am/, may be [õ] or [ã] instead.[21] See Tamil phonology

Before World War II, the /ʌ/ of Received Pronunciation was phonetically close to a back vowel [ʌ]; this sound has since shifted forward towards [ɐ] (a near-open central unrounded vowel). Daniel Jones reports his speech (southern British), as having an advanced back vowel [ʌ̟] between his central /ə/ and back /ɔ/; however, he also reports that other southern speakers had a lower and even more advanced vowel approaching cardinal [a].[22] In American English varieties, e.g. the West and Midwest, and the urban South, the typical phonetic realization of the phoneme /ʌ/ is an open-mid central unrounded vowel [ɜ].[23][24] Truly backed variants of /ʌ/ that are phonetically [ʌ] can occur in Inland Northern American English, Newfoundland English, Philadelphia English, some African-American Englishes, and (old-fashioned) white Southern English in coastal plain and Piedmont areas.[25][26] Despite this, the letter ⟨ʌ⟩ is still commonly used to indicate this phoneme, even in the more common varieties with central variants [ɐ] or [ɜ]. This may be due to both tradition as well as the fact that some other dialects retain the older pronunciation.[27]

References

  1. ↑ Geoff Lindsey (2013) The vowel space, Speech Talk
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Lass (2002), p. 115.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Coupland (1990), p. 95.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Wells (1982a), p. 309.
  5. ↑ Wells (1982b), pp. 614, 621.
  6. ↑ Wells (1982b), p. 614.
  7. ↑ W. Labov, S. Ash and C. Boberg (1997), A national map of the regional dialects of American English, Department of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania, retrieved May 27, 2013<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  8. ↑ Gimson (2014), p. 91.
  9. ↑ Thomas (2001), pp. 27–28, 61–63.
  10. ↑ Thomas (2001), pp. 27–28, 73–74.
  11. ↑ Scobbie, Gordeeva & Matthews (2006), p. 7.
  12. ↑ Khan & Weise (2013), pp. 235, 238.
  13. ↑ Khan & Weise (2013), p. 236.
  14. ↑ Khan & Weise (2013), p. 238.
  15. ↑ Lawrence (1977), pp. 32–33.
  16. ↑ Lawrence (1977), pp. 32–33, 36.
  17. ↑ Ní Chasaide (1999), pp. 114–115.
  18. ↑ Jolkesky (2009), pp. 676–677, 682.
  19. ↑ Jolkesky (2009), pp. 676, 682.
  20. ↑ Lee (1999).
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Keane (2004), p. 114.
  22. ↑ Jones (1972), pp. 86–88.
  23. ↑ Gordon (2004b), p. 340.
  24. ↑ Tillery & Bailey (2004), p. 333.
  25. ↑ Thomas (2001), pp. 27–28, 112–115, 121, 134, 174.
  26. ↑ Gordon (2004a), pp. 294–296.
  27. ↑ Roca & Johnson (1999), p. 135.

Bibliography

  • Coupland, Nikolas (1990), English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change, ISBN 1-85359-032-0<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  • Gimson, Alfred Charles (2014), Cruttenden, Alan (ed.), Gimson's Pronunciation of English (8th ed.), Routledge, ISBN 9781444183092<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  • Gordon, Matthew (2004a), "New York, Philadelphia and other Northern Cities", in Kortmann, Bernd; Schneider, Edgar W. (eds.), A Handbook of Varieties of English: Volume 1: Phonology, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 294–296, ISBN 3-11-017532-0<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  • Gordon, Matthew (2004b), "The West and Midwest: phonology", in Kortmann, Bernd; Schneider, Edgar W. (eds.), A Handbook of Varieties of English: Volume 1: Phonology, Walter de Gruyter, p. 340, ISBN 3-11-017532-0<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  • Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho de Valhery (2009), "Fonologia e prosódia do Kaingáng falado em Cacique Doble", Anais do SETA, Campinas: Editora do IEL-UNICAMP, 3: 675–685<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  • Jones, Daniel (1972), An outline of English phonetics (9th ed.), Cambridge: W. Heffer & Sons Ltd.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  • Keane, Elinor (2004), "Tamil", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (1): 111–116, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001549<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  • Khan, Sameer ud Dowla; Weise, Constanze (2013), "Upper Saxon (Chemnitz dialect)" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (2): 231–241, doi:10.1017/S0025100313000145<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  • Lass, Roger (2002), "South African English", in Mesthrie, Rajend (ed.), Language in South Africa, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521791052<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  • Lawrence, Erma (1977), Haida dictionary, Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  • Lee, Hyun Bok (1999), "Korean", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 120–122, ISBN 0-521-63751-1<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  • Ní Chasaide, Ailbhe (1999). "Irish". Handbook of the International Phonetic Association. Cambridge University Press. pp. 111–116. ISBN 0-521-63751-1.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  • Roca, Iggy; Johnson, Wyn (1999), Course in Phonology, Blackwell Publishing<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  • Scobbie, James M; Gordeeva, Olga B.; Matthews, Benjamin (2006), Acquisition of Scottish English Phonology: an overview, Edinburgh: QMU Speech Science Research Centre Working Papers<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  • Thomas, Erik R. (2001), "An acoustic analysis of vowel variation in New World English", Publication of the American Dialect Society, Duke University Press for the American Dialect Society, 85, ISSN 0002-8207<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  • Tillery, Jan; Bailey, Guy (2004), "The urban South: phonology", in Kortmann, Bernd; Schneider, Edgar W. (eds.), A Handbook of Varieties of English: Volume 1: Phonology, Walter de Gruyter, p. 333, ISBN 3-11-017532-0<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  • Wells, J.C. (1982a). "Accents of English 2: The British Isles". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
  • Wells, J.C. (1982b). Accents of English 3: Beyond the British Isles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-28541-0.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
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